Grice e Botta: implicatura romana

The rise of modern philosophy in Italy is contemporary with the Revival of Letters, when the hahit of independent thought, gradually developing,asserteditselfinoppositiontoScholasticism. Theearly establishment of the Italian Republics, the growth of industry, com merce and wealth, the increasing communication with the East, the propagation of Arabic Bcience, the influence of the Schools of Roman Jurisprudence, the gradual formation of the Italian language, and above all, the growing passion for the literature of Greece and Rome, all combined to stimulate the human mind to free itself from the ser vitudeofprevailingmethodsandideas. Asearlyastheeleventhcen tury, the Catharists appeared in Lombardy, and extending throughout the Peninsula under various names, such as Paterini, Templari, Albi- gesi, Publicani and others, remained for three centuries the uncon- qnered champions of intellectual liberty. At the beginning of the twelfthcentury,anumerousandpowerfulSchoolofphilosophers,em bracing the most prominent representatives of the Gliibelline party, labored so persistently for freedom of thought and expression, that it was denounced by the Church as a School of Epicureans and Atheists. Foremost among these, according to Dante, himself a Gliibelline, was the Emperor Frederick II., the patron of the Arabian scholars, a poet, astatesmanandaphilosopher;hisfriend,CardinalUbaldini;Farinata degli Uberti, a hero in war and peac e ;Brunette Latini, the teacher of Dante; and Guido de' Cavalcanti, "the physicist, the logician and Epicurean," as a contemporary biographer calls him. Meanwhile Arnaldo da Brescia strove to extend to the field of politics the philo    462 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. sophical revolution which had so early begun, and which was now sustained by secret societies widely spread throughout the Peninsula, alluded to in the early poem of St. Paul's Descent to the Infernal Regions. To the same object of intellectual emancipation were directed the religious and social movements, which distinguished the history of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, headed by such Reform ers as Giovanni da Parma, Gerardo di San Douuino, Marsiglio di Padova, Ubertino di Casale, Valdo, and Fra Dolciuo. But- as a promoter of freedom in philosophy as well as in political science, Dante (1265-1321) stands preeminent in the history of his country. Hewasthefirsttoconstructaphilosophicaltheoryofthe separation of the State from the Church in his D e Monarchic, in which he advocated the independence of the civil power from all ecclesiasti cal control ; he also opposed the Papal power in immortal strains in the Divi/ia Commedia ; and, under the popular symbols of the age, strove to enlarge the idea of Christianity far beyond the limits, to whichitwasconfinedbytheScholastics. Petrarch(1304—74)boldly attacked Scholasticism in every form, denounced the Church of Rome as "the impious Babylon which has lost allshame and all truth," with his friend Boccaccio devoted himself to the publication of ancient MSS., and labored throughout his life to excite among his contempo rariesanenthusiasmforClassicLiterature. HisworksDeVera $<tpientia; De Remediis Utriunque Fortunes; De Vita, Solitaria; De Contempt** Mundi, blending Platonic ideas with the doctrines of Cicero and Seneca, were the first philosophical protest against the metaphysicalsubtiltiesofhisage. ThusthefathersofItalianliter ature were also the fathers of the revolution which gave birth to modern philosophy. The studyoftheoriginalwritingsofPlatoand Aristotle,and thein- troduction of an independent exegesis of the ancient philosophers,soon produced a still more decided opposition to Scholasticism ; a move ment aided by the arrival of Greek scholars in Italy before, and after thefallofConstantinople. Prominentamongthese,werethePlato- uists Georgius Gemistus Pletho and Cardinal Bessarion, and the Aris totelians Theodorus Gaza and Georgius of Trebizond, who placed them selvesat.theheadofthephilosophicalrevivalinItaly. WhilePlato- nism became predominant in Tuscany under the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici, the influence of Marsiglio Ficino, and the Platonic Academy founded by the former in Florence, Aristotelianism extended to the    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 463 Universities of Northern Italy and particularly to those of Padua and JV»logna, taking two distinct forms, according to the sources from which theinterpretationofAristotlewasderived. TheAverroistsfollowed the great commentary of Averroes, and the Hellenists, or the Alexan drians, sought the spirit of the Stagirite in the original, or in his Greek commentators,chiefamongwhomwasAlexanderofAphrodisias. The Averroistic School, mainly composed of physicists and naturalists,was the most decided opponent of the Scholastic system in its relation to theology. Indeed,medicine,Arahicphilos ophy,Averroism,astrology, and infidelity, early in the Middle Ages hud become synonymous terms. Pietro d' Abano, who flourished at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and who may he considered as the founder of the Avcrroistic School in Italy, wag one of the first who asserted, under astrological forms, that religion had only a relative value in accordance with the intellectualdevelopmentofthepeople. liewasarrestedbytheorder of the Inquisition; but he died before sentence was passed upon him; his body was burnt, and his memory transmitted to posterity as connected with infernal machinations. In 1321 Cecco d' Ascoli, a professor in the University of Bologna and a friend of Petrarch, was condemned to burn all his books on astrology, and to listen every Sun daytothesermonspreachedinthechurchoftheDominicans. Later he was burnt at the stake, and his picture appears in one of the many Infernos painted on the walls of the Italian churches by Orcagna. The eternity of nwtter and the unity of human intellect were the two great principles of the Averroistic doctrine ; hence the negation of creation, of permanent personality and of the immortality of the soul became its principal characteristics. Although some of the writers of this School endeavored to reconcile its doctrines with the dogmas of the Church, others accepted the consequences of its philosophy, and boldly asserted the eternity of the imiverse and the destruc tionofpersonalityatdeath. FraUrhanodiBologna,PaoloofVen ice, Nicola da Foligno, Cassandra Fedele, and many others, were among the first; among the second may be mentioned Nicoletto Ver- niaa, Tomraaso Cajetano and above all Pietro Pomponacci (1402- 1530), with whom began a new period in the development of Anti- Scholastic philosophy. Hitherto the followers of Averroism had confined their teaching to commentaries upon the great Arabian philosopher; but with Poni]>o- nacci philosophy assumed a more positive and independent character    464 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. and became the living organ of contemporary thought Indeed. while he adhered to the Averroiste in his earnest opposition to Scholas ticism, he was a follower of the Alexandrians in certain specific- doctrines. Thusonthequestionoftheimmortalityofthesonl,which BO agitated the mind of the age, while the Averroists asserted that the intellectafterdeathreturnedtoGod andintimelostitsindividuality, Pompouacci with the Alexandrians rejected that compromise, and openlydeniedallfutureexistence. lieheldthattheoriginofman was due to the same causes which produced other things in nature: that miracles were but illusions, and that the rise and the decadence ofreligiondependedontheinfluenceofthestars. It13truethat he insisted on the opposition of philosophy and faith, and thought that what was true in the former might be false in the latter, and vice versa; a subterfuge, into which many philosophers of the Mid dle Ages were forced by the dangers, to which they were exposed. Pomponacciwastheauthorofmanyworks,oneofwhich,De /minor- talitateAnimce,wasburntinpublic. Hismostcelebrateddisciples were Ercole Gonzaga, Paolo Giovio, Simone Porta, and Grattarolo. His opponents were Achillini, Nifo, Castellani and Gaspare Con- tarini, all moderate Averroists, who strove to reconcile Christianity with natural philosophy; an effort, in which they were joined by Zimara,Zabarella,PendasioandCrumoniui. AmongtheHellenists, who maintained in part the opinions of Pomponacci, was I-eonico Thomeo (1450-1531), a physician, and professor in the University of Padua, who, on account of the vivacity of his polemic against Scholasticism, the Hippocratic character of his doctrines, and the beauty of his style, may be considered as the founder of Hellenic criticismandnaturalismintheAgeoftheRenaissance. Tothesame class of writers, although neither pure Hellenists nor Averroists, belong Giovanni Pico della Miraudola (1463-94) and Cardano (1501-76), who strove to substitute in place of Scholasticism philosophic systems found ed partly on Christianity, and partly on Platonic ideas, or on doctrines derived from the Cabala and astrology ; Cesalpino (1509-1603), who constructed a pantheistic philosophy on Averroistic ideas, and Vanini (1585-1619), who for advocating a system of naturalism was burut atthestake. Otherwritersopposedcontemporaryphilosophychiefly for the barbarous form, in which it was expressed, such as Loreuzo Valla, Poliziano, Barbaro, Nizolio, and Ludovico Vives. But a more effectual opposition to Scholasticism was dne to    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 465 the introduction of the experimental method into scientific inves tigations, which was first inaugurated by Leonardo da Vinci (1452 -1519), the artist, the poet, the mathematician and the philosopher, who, as Hallam says, " within the compass of a few pages anticipated almost all the discoveries which have been made in science, from Gali leotothecontemporarygeologists." Nizolio,Aconzio,Erizzo,Moceni- go and Alessandro Picc.olomini continued the work of da Vinci in insisting on the application of the experimental method in philosophy. This application was partially at least attempted by Telesio (1508-88), aud by Patrizi (1529-76), who opposed Scholasticism by striving to createaphilosophyfoundedonnature. GiordanoBruno(1548-1600) boldly undertook the philosophical reconstruction of Mind and Nature on the basis of the unity and the universality of substance ; while Tommaso Campanella (15GS-1C39) established his philosophy on ex perience and consciousness. To promote this scientific movement learned associations everywhere arose ; the " Acadeinia Secretorum Naturae " was instituted at Naples by G. B. Porta in 1560 ; the Telesiana was established by Telesio in the same city;the Lyn- cbean was founded in Rome by Prince Frederick Cesi in 1609, and the Academia del Cimento in Florence in 1637. Meantime the opposition to Scholasticism extended to the field of politics, where Machiavelli (1469-1527) established the principles of that poli cy, which in less than four centuries was destined to triumph in the establishment of Italian unity on the ruins of papal sovereignty, a policy which found a powerful impulse in the religious revolution attempted by Savonarola (1452-98), a still more effectual aid in the invention of the art of printing, and a pledge of its final triumph inthegreatReformationofthe16thcentury. Invainthesacerdotal caste persecuted and imprisoned the philosophers and reformers, and b u r n t t h e m a t t h e s t a k e ; i n v a i n it s t r o v e t o d r o w n p h i l o s o p h i c a l l i b e r t y inblood. Theoppositionincreasedandreappearedinthewritingsof Gnicciardini the historian (1482-1560), and of Paolo Sarpi (1552-1623), the bold defender of the Republic of Venice against the encroach mentsofthePapalSee,thephilosopherandthenaturalist,towhom many discoveries in science are attributed. The political writings of Doriato Giannoti, of Paolo Paruta, and Giovanni Bottero, hi the last part of the sixteenth century, which were devoted to the emancipation of society from the authority of the Church, close the period which had opened with the aspirations of Dante aud    106 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. Petrarch, and was now crowned by the martyrdom of Giordano Bruno and LucilioVamni. For the exposition of the doctrines of the Italian philosophers of the Renaissance, the readerisreferredtoUeberweg'sstatements,pp.5-14and19-31ofthisvolume. See further: Tiedemann, Geistder Speculative/} Philosophic; John 6. Biihle, Gesch. der neu- eren Philos. ; W. G. Tennemann, Geschichte der Philosophic ; H. Ritter, GescMchU der Philos. ; Supplement) aliaStoria delta Filosofiadi Tennemann, byG. D. Romagnosi andB. Poli ;T. Mamiani, Jiinnovamento delia Filmofm antica Italiana ; B. Spaventa, Caraltere e sviluppodeliaFiiosofiaItaliamidalSctxlo16"finoalnostrotempo,1860. On thephilo sophy of Dante, see A. F. Ozanam, Dante et la PhUosophie Cathdique au 13* Steele, 1845. tranal.byBoissard,Lond.1854;N.Tommaseo.LaCommediadiDante,1854;G.Frap- porti,SuMaFiiosofiadiDante,1855;UgoFoscolo,DiseorsomiltestodelPoemadiDante, 1825; G. Rossetti, Commento analitico delta Diuina Commedia, 1827; H. C. Barlow, Critical, Historical, and Philosophical Contributions to the Study of the.Dicina Commedia, 1804; V. Botta, Dante as Philosopher, Patriot and Poet, New York, 1865; Maria Francesca Rossetti, A Shadow of Dante, Boston, 1872, and the valuable works written on the Italian poet by Schlosser, Kopish, Wegele, Blanc, Goschel, Karl Witte, and Philalethes(thepresentKingJohnofSaxony). OnPetrarch,seeT.Bonifas,De Petrarca Philosopho, 1863, and Maggiolo, De la Philosophic morale de Petrarque, 1804. On the opposition of Petrarch to Scholasticism cf. Renan's Averroes et VArenvisme, 1852, 2' Partie, ch. III. 3. Towards the end of the twelfth century the doctrines of Averroes -were introduced into the Peninsula from Spain and Sicily, where appeared the first translations of the commentaryoftheArabianphilosopher. TheysoonbecamenaturalizedintheUniver sities of Padua, Bologna, and Ferrara, and the absorbing subject of lectures and discus sions for three or four centuries. The principal lecturers belonging to this School were Pietro d'Abano (d. 1315), the author of Conciliator differentiarum PhQosophorum et Medicorum ; Giovanni di Gonduno (fl. in 1328), whose Quastiones et Comments on Aristotle, Averroes, and Pietro d'Abano are extant in the national library of Paris, some of which were published in Venice, 1488, 1490, and 1501 ; Fra Urbano da Bologna (fl.1334),whowroteavoluminouscommentaryoftheworkofAverroesonthebookof Aristotle, De Physico Audita ; it was published in Venice, 1492, with a preface of Nicoletto Vernias ; Paolo di Venezia (d. 1429), the author of S u m m a totius Philosophic, whodefendedthedoctrinesofAverroesinthepresenceofeighthundredAugustinians against Nicola Fava, the Hellenist ; Gaetano Tiene (fl. 1436), Tiberio Bazilieri, Nicola di Foligno, Ugo di Siena, Marsiglio di Santa Sofia, Giacomo di Forll, Tommaso de Vio Cajetano, Nicoletto Vernias and many others have left voluminous MSS. in the libra ries of Venice. Padua, and Bologna, as witnesses of their devotion to the ideas of the greatArabianphilosopher. CassandraFedele,alearnedladyofVenice,defendedin 1480 a series of Averroistic theses in the University of Padua, and obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy. Pomponacci may be classed among the Averroists, as far as he believed in the exis tence of a radical antithesis between religion and philosophy ;he, however, rejected the fundamental principle of Averroism, the unity of the intellect, and in this respect hebelongedtotheAlexandrianSchool. Hewastheauthorofseveralworks:DeImmor-. talitateAnimm;DeFato;DeLiberoArbitrio;DePmdesUnatione;DeProcidentiaDei; andDenaturatiumeffectaumadmirandorumcausis,scilicetdeIncantationibus. Aleasan-    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 467 rtroAchilliniwasoneofhiaopponents,andtheSchoolofPaduahasleftnorecordmore celebrated,thanthatofthepublicdiscussionsheldbythosetwophilosophers. Achil- lini'sworkswerepublishedinVenice,1508. In1509thetwoadversarieshavingbeen obliged to leave Padua, established themselves in Bologna, where they continued their disputationstilltheoccurrenceoftheirdeath,about1520. AgostinoNifo(1473-1546) was another opponent of Pomponacci ; at the request of pope Leo X. he wrote his De Aiiima ; which gave occasion to Pomponacci to publish his Defensorium contra Niphum ; Nifo was also the author of Dilucidarium Metaphyxicarum Disputationum. I. A. Marta in his Apologia de Animat ImmortaUtate, Cardinal Gaspare Contarini in his De ImmortaUtate Animat, and several others strove to confute the doctrines of Pom ponaccionthemortalityofthesoul. Hewasdefendedbyseveralofhispupils,and particularly by Simon Porta (d. 1555) in his De Aniina, de Spcciebus inteUigibiUbus. S. Porta was also the author of De Humana Mente DispuUitU), 1551 ; De Merum Naluralium Prindpiis, 15(il ; D e Dolore ; A n homo bonus vel malus vokns fiat, 1551. In 1512 the Lattr. m Council condemned both those, who taught that the human soul wasnotimmortal,andthosewhoassertedthatthesoulisoneandidenticalinallmen. It condemned also the philosophers who affirmed that those opinions, although con trary to faith, were philosophically true. It enjoined professors of philosophy to refute all heretical doctrines to which they might allude, and prohibited the clergy to studyphilosophyforacourselongerthanfiveyears. Indeed,Averroismasearlyas the.thirteenth century had become hostile to the doctrines of the Church, and in 1271, and again in 1277, itwas condemned by Stephen Tempier, archbishop of Paris, who causeditsprinciplestobeembodied indistinctpropositions. Among thesewerethe following:Quodiermoi.est/wologicisuntfundatiinfabulia. QuodnUiilplussciturprop tersciretheologian. QuodJobulmandfalsasuntinlegeChristiana,sicutetinaliis. QuodlexChristianaimpeditaddiscere. Quodsapicntesinundisuntphilosophitantum. Notwithstanding the condemnation of the Church, those ideas seemed to have taken hold of the philosophical mind of the age, and long continued to find favor among teachersandstudents. Therewere,however,philosopherswho,adheringtothedoo- trines of Averroes, strove to blend them with the standard of an orthodox creed. Among them Marc-Antonio Zimara (d. 1552) in his Solutiones contradictionum in dicta Aristotelis et Aeerrois, Antonio Posi di Monselice, Giulio Palamede, Bernandino Tomi- tanodiFeltreandseveralothersinthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury. Mean time new translations and new editions of the works of Averroes, more correct and more complete, appeared, due to the labors of G. B. Bagolini of Verona, Marco Oddo, GiacobbeMantino,AbramodeBalmes,GianFrancescoBuranaandothers. Giacomo Zabarella,from1564to1589,followedAverroesinhislecturesattheUniversityofPadua, andfoundanopponentinGiovanniFrancescoPiccolomini;FedericoPendasiostroveto blend Averroism with Alexandrianism, and Cesare Cremonini (1552-1631), the last repre sentative of Averroism in Italy, gave new forms and new tendencies to the doctrines of hismaster. HislecturesarepreservedinthelibraryofSt.MarcinVenice,andform twenty-fourlargevolumes. Cf.PUtroPomponacci,StudiStoricisullaScuoladiBologna t di Padua by Francesco Fiorentino, 1868 ; P. Pomponacci by B. Podesta ; and P. Pomponacci e la Scienza by Luigi Ferri, published in the Archivio Storico Italiano, 1871. Hellenic Aristotelianism, not less than Averroism, was a step toward the emancipa tionofthehumanintellect. ThesameobjectwasgreatlypromotedbytheSchoolof Humanists, represented by L. Valla, Poliziano and L. Vives, and by the Platonic revival Uirough the Academy of Florence, and the translations and the works of Marsiglio    408 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. Ficino; cf. Tiraboschi's Storia delta, Letteratura Italiarut; Heeren's GeschkhU det Studiums der dassischen LUeratur seitdem WiederauJUben der Wissensehaften, 1797- 1802; Renan's op. c. ; I. Burckhardt's Die Cultur der Renaissance in It/Uien, 1869; Von Alfred von Reumont's Geschicht* der Stadl Home 1869 ; I. Zeller's Italit et In Renaissance I860; and the Edinburgh Review, July 1872: Tiie Popes and Ute Italian Humanists. TheHumanistrevival,properlyspeaking,commencedwiththeadventto Florence of Manuel Chrysoloras in 1396 ; and it was promoted and illustrated by the researches and the writings of many scholars, such as Poggio, Filelfo, Aretino, Valla, Traversari, Vegio, and Tommaso di Sarzana, who afterwards became Pope under the name of Nicholas V. The Council of Constance, 1414-18, contained among its mem bers several of the most learned humanists of the age. and for a time the Papal See was at the head of the movement for the revival of the study of classical literature- Prominent among the popes who promoted that revival were Nicholas V., alreadj mentioned, Martin V., Eugene IV., Pius II., known under the name of Enea Silvio Piccolomini, and Leo X. To this revival may also be referred the origin of the Academical bodies and literary associations which formed so characteristic a fea tureoftheliterarylifeofItalyofthattime. Oftheseassociations,thosewhichheld their meetings in Florence, at the Camaldolese Convent degli Angeli and at the AugustineConventdelloSpirito,werethemostcelebrated. Thecontroversybetween the Platonists and Aristotelians of the Age of the Renaissance is described in De GeorgWs Dmtriba by Leo Allatius in Script. Bizant. ; in Boivin's QuereUe rtes Phib- sophes du XV. Hidcle (M/'tnoires de literature de l'Academie des Inscriptions, vol. II.), and in Gcnnadius and Pletho, Aristotdismus und Platonismus in der Grieehixclien Kirehe, by W. Gass, 1844. The following are the works of L. Thomeo, the Hellenist : Arist'itelis Stagirita par&i owe vacant naturaUa, 1530. Dialogide Divinatione; Be Animorum ImmorUtlitate; De Tribus Animorum Vehiculis; De Nominum Ineentione; De Precibus; De Com- pescendo Luctii; De JEUitum. Moribus; De Belativorum Natura; De Animorum Essentia. 1530. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola wrote De Ente et Una: Twelve book* against Judiciary Astrokigy ; Ileptaplon, or a treatise on Mosaic Phileisophy; Rtgu!* Oirigentis lwminem in pugna spirituali, and Nine hundred Theses on Dialectics, moral, physical,andmathematicalsciences,whichhedefendedinpublicinRome. Hisne phew, Giovanni Francesco Pico, held the same doctrines, and wrote in defence of the bookDeEnteetUno. Cf.DasSystemdesJohnPicovonMirandola.byGeorgDrey- dorff,1858. GirolamoCardanowrotemanyworks,whichwerepublishedintenvol umes in quarto in 1663 ; the principal ones are : De SubtUitate librixx ; De Rermn Varielate. HeiscelebratedforhisFormulaforsolvingequationsofthethirddegree. Heisalsotheauthorofanautobiography. HisdoctrineswererefutedbyScaligeroin hisExereitalionesexotcrica.anddefendedbyhimselfinhisApologia. Cf.Rixner'sand Siber's Beit-rage zur Geschiehteder Physiologie im weiteren und engeren Sinne [Ltben nnd MeinungenberuhmterPhysiherim16.und17.Jahrh.,1819-26). AndreaCesalpinoia the author of several works on physiology and medicine, PerifHJtetiearum Quasii'w*m libriqvinque,andDtemonumInvestigatinPeripatetiea. LorenzoVaUawroteEtegas- tutrumlibrisex.DialeetiroyDixputatioiws,andDeVeraBono. HetranslatedalsotheIliad. Herodotus,andThucydides. AngeloPoliziano,poetandphilosopher,translatedtheMan ualofEjrictectus,theQuestionsandProblemsofAlexanderofAphrodisias,theAphorism* of Hippocrates, and the Sayings and the Deeds of Xenophon ; he wrote also Parepisto- menon,inwhichheproposedtodescribethetreeofhumanknowledge. Ermolao Barbaro wrote on Themistius, and on the Aristotelian doctrine of the soul ; Ludovico    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 469 TivesDe Causiscorruptarum artium, 1531;De Initiis,SectisetLaudibusPhilosop7tia, id.; De Anima et Vita, 1558. Of the numerous treatises of Leonardo da Vinci the greaterpartstillremaininmanuscriptintheAmbrosianlibraryatMilan. Theyare written from right to left, and in such manner that it is necessary to employ a glassinordertodecipherthem. ExtractsfromhisMSS.werepublishedinParisby Yenturi,1797. GiacomoXizoliowrotetheAntibarbarusiseudeverisprincipiisetvera rntviM philosophandi contra Pseudo-PhUosi/phos, 1553 ; Giacomo Aconzio, Metliodus, scilicet recta investigandarum tradendnrumque artium ac scientiarum ratio, 1558 Giacomo Sadoleto, Phadrus, seu de laudibus Philosophia, 1607 ; Sebastiano Erizzo, D e W Istrumentu e Via incentrice deyli Antichi, 1554; M. Antonio Mocenigo, De eo quod est puradoxa, 1559 ; Alessandro Piccolomini, L' Ixtrumento ddla FUosofia, 1565 ; Filo- «"Jin luiturale, 1502, and Istituzione morale. According to Tiraboschi, A Piccolomini wasthefirstphilosopherwhousedtheItalianlanguageinhiswritings. Hewas,how ever, preceded by T. Golferani, who long before wrote a treatise in that language, DeliaMemorialocale,1340. GiovanniFrancescoPiccolomini,anephewofAlessandro, wroteDeRerumDefinUionibus,1600;andUnicersadeMoribusPhilotophia. Heremay alsobementionedG.B.Porta,theauthorofDeHumanaPhysiognomia,1586;andDeoc- eulti* Uterarum initio, seu D e A rte animi sensi occulta aliis significandi, 1593 ; G. Brisiani Methodus Scientinram, 1587 ; Y. Giorgio Veneto, De Hdrmoaia ifundi, 1525 ; N. Con tarini, De Perfectione rerum, libri sex, 1576 ; G. Mazzoni, De TripUci Hominum Vita 1577;De ConsensuAristoteli*etPtatonis,andInAristoteU*etPlatonisunitersamPhiloso phiam Praludia, 15417; and Valerio die' Valerii, Opus aureum in quo omnia expUcantur, qua Scientiarum omnium parens Raymundus Lullus tarn in Scientiarum arbore, quam arte gcnerali, tradit, 1589. Bernandino Telesio wrote De Rerum Natura juxta propria principia, 1586 ; Varii denaturalibusrebuslibelli,1590;Dehisquainaerefiuntetdeterra-motibus. Quod aniiruduniversumabunicaanimasubstantiagubernatur,adversusOalenum,1590. Cf. Hixter'sandSiber'sop.c.;alsoli.TelesiobyFiorentino,1872. Themethodpursuedby Telesio he himself thus describes : Sensum videlicet et nos et naturam, aliud praterea nihilsequutisumus,quasummesibiipsaconcorsidemsemper,eteodemagitmodo,atque iilemsemperojteratur. Oftheoriginoftheworldhesays:liemotissimamscilicetobscu- rissimamque rem et minime naturali ratione afferendam ; cujus cognitio omnis a sensu peiulet,etdequanihilomninoasserendumsitunqumn,quodvolnonipso,telipsiussimile perceperitsensu. FrancescoPatriziwroteDiscussionesPeripatetica,1571;Nonade L'niccrsis Pliilosuphia, in qua Aristolelica methodo nun per m/itum, sed per lucem ad primaincausamascenditur,1591;DeliaPoeticaolaDecaistoriale,1586. Cf.Rixner and Siber op. cit. Of the works of Giordano Bruno some are written in Italian and some in Latin. The former were edited by A Wagner, Leipzic, 1829 ; the latter (only in part) by A. F.Gefrorer,Stuttgart,18:54. Thefollowingisthecompletecatalogueofhiswritings, classified according to their chronological order : I!Area di N'ie, 1570 (unpublished andlo6t);DeSphara.1576(id.);DeiSegnideitempi,1576 (publishedand lost);De Anima, 1577 (unpublished and lost) ; Claris magna, 1578 ; Dei Predieamenti di Dio, 1579 ; De Umbris Ideurnm, 1582 ; De Compendiosa Architectura. 1582 ; II Candelajo, a Comedy, 1582; Purgatorio deW Inferno, 1582 (unpublished and lost) ; Explicatio tri- ginta S giU/irum, 1583 ; l a Cenadelle Ceneri, five dialogues, 1584; Delta Causa, Princi- fiio et Uno, 1584 ; De, flnfinito Unieerso e Mondi, 1584 ; Spaccio delta bestia trionfante, 1584 ; Cabala dd cacallo Pegaseo con Fagyiunta de/F asino C'iUenico, 1585 ;Degli heroici Farori,1585;FiguratioAristoteliciAuditusphys.,1586;DtalogiduodeFabriciimorden    470 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHT. tuSaUrnitanipropediritiaadinttntKmeadpeTftctam Cmmimttx impraiim. 1386; J$ri Brum intomnium, 1586;De Lampade combirtaturia LuUiana, 1587;De Program a Lampade cenatoria Logieorum, 1387; Acrotirmu*. teu ration** articuiorvat phyxiomm advertu* Arisloteiieat, 1587; Oratio Vaiedictoria Yitemberga habiUi. 15sS; De Sfxtu- rum ScruiinioetLampade eombinaVoria Raymondi Luilit. 158$; Centum ft Seragikt-i ArtieuU adeem* hvju* tempettati* Mathtmatico» atque PhAutuplto*. 1588 ; Oratio «*»> latoriahabitainobituPriridpUJuUiBrun*ricen*iumD»ci*.IS"*!*;DtItnagiuum.S§**- rumetIdearumCompomtiane,1391;De TriplieeMinimaetMemura,1391;DeMonadt. NutneroetFigura.1591;DererumImagmibut,1591(unpublishedandlost);Libredew tette arti liberali, 1591 (unpublished) ; Liber triginta Statuarum, 1591 ; Tempiam Mnemonidi*,1591;BeMuttipUciJfundiVita,1591(unpublishedandlost);DeSatmie gettibu*(id.); De Prindpii* Yeriiid.); De Attrobigia {.id); De Magia pAgnca ;Itt Phytica ; Libretto di eongiurazioni ; Surmna terminorum metayJtysicorum, pubL W H ; Artiftcium perorandi. pubL 1012. Cf. Bruno oder uber da* uaturliche. and gi-ttlxit PrineipderDinge,bySchelling.1802. AlsotheintroductionofT.Mami.iiitothe translation of Schelling's dialogue by the Marchioness M. Florenzi Waddington ;Bax ter's and Siber's op. cit Bruckerii Hutoria PhMonophia, 1744. L 6. Buhle, Commentat» deOrtuetProgre**uPantheimniindeaXenophane Cohfoiaoprimaeju*authtrreunptt ad Spinozam ; Nioeron, M'moiret pour »ercir a Chiatoire de* hmmnt* iiitutre* ; C. Stepo. Jordan, Di*qui*itio de Jordano Bruno Nolano ; Guil. F. Christiani. De Studii* Jordan Brunimathematicis;Kindervater,BeitrdgeturLebentgetchichUde*Jord.Bruno.1789; D. Lessman. Giordano Bruno in Cisalpinische Blatter. Tom. 1 ; Fullebom. BeitrAye tur G e*chiehte der PhUmoph., 1706; F. L Clemens, Giordano Bruno und Nicheiae* t'/n Cusa, 1847; John A. Scartazzini, Ein BluUeuge de* Wittens, 18(37; Ch. Bar- tholmes, Jordano Bruno, 1840-47 ; George Henry Lewes, Hittory of Philosophy, laBS : Sigwart. Spinoza's neuentdeckter fractal von Gott, 1800; A. Debs, Jordani Bruni Vila et Scripta, 1844 ; Lange, Geochiehtc de* Materialumus, 1800 ; Donienico Berti, Vita di Giordano Bruno, 18(38, which contains the proceedings of Bruno's trial before the Inquisition of Venice, recently discovered in the archives of that city., Tommaso Campanella's principal works are as follows: L'nicersm PhilnsoyJiiaten Metaphyxicarum Rerum juxta propria dogmata, parte* Ire*, 1038; Philoaephia teia&u demonttrata et in octo disputation** di*tincta, advertu* eo* qui propria arbitral*, non autem semata duce natura, philosophati aunt, 1591 ; Beak* Philosopher eptiegutit* parte* quatuor, hoc e*t de rerum natura, hominum, moribus, etc. His Ciiitas Soli*, akindofUtopianromance,formspartofthelatterwork. Delibruproprii*etrecta ratione studendi Syntagma, 1042; De Seiuu rerum et Mugia. 1020; De GentSesimo nonretinendo;Atheismu»triumphatu*;ApologiaproGalihro;DeMonarchU\Ui*pa*i- cti ; Disputationum in quatuor partes PhUosophia BeaU* libri quatuor ; several philo sophicalpoemsinLatinandItalian. Cf.Baldachini,VitaeFilosofiadiT.Campaneila, 1840 ; A. D. Ancona. Introduction to the new edition of Campanella's works, Turin, 1854;S.Centofanti,anessaypublishedintheArchirioStoricoItaliano,18C6;Spaventa and Mamiani, op. cit. ; also Sigwart, Tit. Campaneila und Heine poUtischen Idem, in the Preuss. Jahrb., 1880; Mile. Louise Colet, QSucre* choutie* de CampaneBa, 1844; Pierre Leroux, Encyclopedic nouveUe, and G. Ferrari, C'orso *ugli Scrittvri pdititi Italiani. 1803. L. Vanini is the author of Amphitheatrum JEternai Procidentia, 1615 ; De edau- randi* Natura;, Regina Detrque morlalium, arcatti», 1610; Dt Vera Sapientia; Phytic- Magicum;DeContemneiidaGloria;ApolngiiiproMotaieaetOirirtianalege. Cf.W.D. Fuhrmann, Leben und Schicksale, Character und Meinungeii de* L. Yaumi, 1800. Emue    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 471 Waisse. L. Vantili, sa vie, sa doctrine, et sa mort ; Bxtrait dea mcmoires de P Aoadémie dea Sciences de Toulose. Arpe, Bayle, and Voltaire in several of their works undertake thedefenceofVanirò. Cf.alsoLaVieetlesSentimentsdeL.VanirtibyDavidDurand, 1717, and Rousselot CEuvres P/Ulosophiques de L. Vanini, 1841. OfalltheeditionsofMachiavelli'sworks,thatofFlorence,1813,in8vols.8vo.isthe fullestandthebest. AneweditionhasbeenrecentlypublishedinFlorencepartlyby LemmonierandpartlybyG.Barbera. Ofhiswritings,11Principe,writteninlolland published in 1532, / DiscorsisulleDecite di T. Livio, and Le Storie Fiorentine are the most celebrated. Cf. Gesohichte der Staatswissensc/uiften, by B. von Mohi, 1858 ; Banke's zar Kritik neuerer Gesc/iichts/icreiber, 1834 ; Macaulay's Essay on Machiavelli in his Critical and Historical Essays ; 6. Ferrari in his Corso sugliScrittoripolitici Italiani, andPasqualeSt.Mancini,DellaDottrinapoliticadelMachiavelli,1852. Seealsothelife ofMachiavellipublishedintheFlorentineeditionofhisworks,1702. Theprincipal workofFrancescoGuicciardiniisLaStoriad'Italia,extendingfrom1490to1534. Its besteditionisthatofPisa,1819,in10vols. Aneditionofhisunpublished workshas recentlyappearedinFlorence,undertheeditorshipofG.Canestrini. Thisvaluable publication contains Le Considerazioni intorno al Discorso di Nicolò MacliiavéUi sopralaprimaDecadiT.Livio;IRicordipoliticiecivili;IDiscorsipolitici; IlTrattato ei Discorsi sulla Coslituzi/me della Republica Fiorentina e sulla riforma del suo governo ; Im StoriadiFirenze;Sceltadallacorrispondenzauffici/iletenutadalGuicciardinidurante le diverse sue Legazioni ; and il Carteggio, or his correspondence with Princes, Popes, Cardinals,Ambassadors,andStatesmenofhistime. Cf.Banke'sop.cit.;Thiers'Ilis- totre du Consulat et de l'Empire— Avertissement ; the Preface by G. Canestrini to the Opere inedite di Fr. Guicciardini, 1857, and Storia della Letteratura Italiana, by Paolo Emiliano Guidici, 1855, voi. Sì. For the works of G. Savonarola, Paolo Sarpi, D. Gian- noti,P.Parata,andG.Bottero,cf.G.Ferrari,op.cit. Savonarolawastheauthor of Compendiumtotiusphilosopliimtarnnaturalisquammoralit,andofTrattatocircail reggimentoeilgovernodellacittàdiFirenze,1542;cf.StoriadiG.SavonarolabyPas quale Villari, 18(58. Paolo Sarpi wrote La Storia del Concilio Tridentino, a work which has been translated into Latin, German, French, and English ; also, Opinione come debba governarsi la Republica Veneziana, 1080, and many other works, of which a full cataloguemaybefoundintheBiografiadiFraPaoloSarpihyk.Bianchi-Giovini,1840. The principal writings of D. Giannoti are Delia Republica di Venezia, 1540 ;Delia Re- pubUca Fiorentina and Opuscoli ; of P. Parata, Perfezione della vita politica, 1579. Discorsi politici, 1600; of G. Bottero, L a Ragione di Stato, 1589. Republica Veneziana, 1005; Cause della grandezza delle Città, and I Principi. The /Seventeenth and the Eighteenth Centuries. The sun of modern philosophy in Italy rose at last with Galileo Galilei(1564-1641),anativeofPisa,andthechiefoftheSchool,which acenturybeforehadbegunwithLeonardodaVinci. Atanearlyage Galileo was a professor in the Universities of Pisa and Padua, and afterwards held the office of mathematician and philosopher at the CourtofTuscany. Heisthetruefounderofinductivephilosophy. Regarding nature as the great object of science, the autograph book of the Creator, he held that it cannot be read by authority, nor by any pro    472 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. <-ess d priori, but only by means of observation, experiment, measure und calculation. While, to aid bis investigations, he invented, the hydrostatic balance, the proportional compass, the thermoseope, the compound microscope and the telescope, he borrowed from mathema tics the formulas, the analyses, the transformation and development ofhisdiscoveries. Applyingthismethodtoterrestrialandcelestial mechanics, lie made important discoveries in every branch of physical science,andplacedtheheliocentricsystemonascientificbasis. Hav ing thus given the death-blow to Scholasticism, he was arrested by the Inquisition, forced publicly to recant, and to remain under its sur veillancefortherestofhislife. Speakingofthecomparativemerit ofGalileoand Bacon,SirDavidBrewstersays:"HadBaconnever lived, the student of nature would have found in the writings and the works of Galileo not only the principles of inductive philosophy, but also its practical application to the noblest efforts of invention and discovery." TheeminentscientistBiot,whileassertingthe-u»eles«ness of the Baconian method, insists upon the permanent validity of that of Galileo; and Trouessart declares that in science we are all his pupils. Galileo founded a School honored by the names of Torricelli, Viviani, Castelli, Borelli, Cavalieri, Malpighi, Spallaiizani, Morgan!, Galvani, Volta and other eminent scientific men, who, follow ing his method successively, took the lead in the scientific progress of Europe. Itwasduetothisactivityinscience,thattheItalianinind was enabled to resist the oppressive influence of the political and eccle siastical servitude, under which Italy labored in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; and itwas through the example of Galileo, that physical science never became so predominant, as to exclude the stndy ofphilosophy. Throughouthisworkshelosesnooccasiontoinsiston efficient and final causes, and on the infinite difference which exists betweenthedivineandthehumanintelligence;andwhilehedepre cates the scepticism, which denies the legitimate power of reason, he rejects pure rationalism, which knows no limit for human knowledge. He assertsthatbeyondallsecondcauses,theremustnecessarilyexista First Cause, whose omnipotent and allwise creative energy alone can ex plain the origin of the world ; and he professes faith in that Divine Pro vidence which embraces the universe as well as its atoms, like the son which diffuses light and heat through all our planetary system, while atthesametimeitmaturesagrainofwheatasperfectly,asifthat were the only object of its action.    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 473 The works of Galileo have recently been published in a complete edition, 10 vols., undertheeditorshipofProf.EugenioAlberi;Le OperedìGalileoGalilei,primaedizione completa,conduttasugliautenticiManoscrittiPalatini,Firenze,1842-50. Thisedition containsthelifeofGalileo,writtenbyhispupilViviani. Among hisbiographersand criticsmaybementionedGhiliniinhisTeatrodiuominiletterati,1047;G.V.Rossiin his Pinacotheca lUustnum Virorum, 1043-48 ; P. Frisi, Eloffio di Galileo, 1775, which was translated into French and inserted in the Supplement de VEncyclopedic de Diderot and D.Alembert;J.AndresinhishistoryofliteratureandinSaggiodelliFilosofiadi Galileo, 1770 ; L. Brenna, Vita di Galileo, 1778, which was inserted in the work of Fabroni : Vita Italorum doctrina excettentium qui Saculis xvii. et xviii. jloruerunt, 1778- 1805 ; T. Tozzetti, in his Notizie degli aggrandimenti dette Scienzefisiche in Toscana, 1780, in which he published the life of Galileo written by Gherardini, his contemporary ; C. Nelli, Vita e Commercio letterario di Galileo, 1707; Bailly, Histoire de VAstronomie moderne; G. Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, 1820-30; Montucla, Histoire desMathematiques,1799;Libes,HistoirePhilosophiquedeProgrèsdelaPhysique,1810; IL T. Biot, Artide Galileo in Biographie nnieerseUe, published by Michaud ;A. Barbier in his B x a m e n critique et complement des Dictionnaires llistoriques lesplus repandus, 1820; Lord Brougham, Life of Galileo, 1829 ; M. Salii, in his continuation of the Histoire Uttiraire d'Italie de Ginguenò, 1834 ; G. Cuvier, Histoire des Sciences Naturelles, 1841 ; M. Libri, Histoire des Sciences Mathematiques en Italie, 1841 ; Sir David Brewster, LinesofCopernicusandGalileo(EdinburghReview,1830),LifeofNewton,1855,andthe MartyrsofScience,1840;B.Boncompagni,IntornoadalcaniavanzamentidelibiFisicain Italia nei Secoli 10'el7', 1840; Wbewell, History of the Inductive Sciences, 1837; li. M a rini,GalileoeVInquisizione,1850;D.Bezzi,intheAttidell'Academia Pontificiadeinuovi Lincei, Dicembre, 1851 ; A. de Keumont, Galilei und Rom, published in his Beitrage zur lUiUeniscJten Geschicltte, 1853; Ph. Chasles, Galileo Galilei, sa Vie, son Proeès etses Contem- porains, 1801 ;Madden, Galileo and the Inquisition, 1803 ; J. Bertrand, in his Les Fon diteursdeVAstronomiemoderne,1805; Trouessart, inhisGalilee,sa Missionscientìfique, saVieetsonProeès,1805;Panhappe,Galilee,saVie,sesDécouvertesetsesTravaux,1800; Henry de l'Epinois, Galilee, son Proeès, sa Condam'nation, d'après des document» inédits, 1807, in the Revue des Sciences llistoriques; M. L. de la Rallaye, Galilee, la Science et VEglise, 1807, in the Revue du Monde Catholique; Chr. J. Jagemann, Geschichte des LebensundderSchriftendesGalileoGtUilei,1784; Drinkwater,LifeofGalileo;Selmi, Nel Trecentesimo Natalizio di Galileo in Pisa, 1804 ; P. Feliciani Filosofia Positiva di Gali leo,1808;E.Wohlwill,DerInquisition—ProcessdesG.G„1870;GalileoandhisCondem nation,Rambler(Lond.),Jan.1852;CascofGalileo,DublinRerietp.Oct.1805—specially worthy of consultation; The Martyrdom of Galileo, North British Review, Nov. 1800, inreplytoBiotintheJourmd desSavants,1858;Abbé Castelnnu, Vie, Trataux. Proeès, etc.deGalil,Paris,1870. Th.HenryMartin,GalileeetlesDroitsdelaScience,1808. Galileo's ''System of the World " was translated into English by Thomas Salusbury, fol. Lond., 1041. Giovanni Battista Vico, as the founder of the philosophy of history, (1668-1744) stands foremost among the philosophers of modern times. HewasborninNaples,andearlydevotedhimselftothestudyoflaw, philosophy,philologyandhistory. Livinginanagewhenthephiloso phyofDescarteshadbecomepopularinItaly,heattackedthepsycho    474 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. logical method as the exclusive process of philosophic investigation, maintained the validity of common sense, and upheld the import anceofhistoricandphilologicalstudies. Hiswritings,De Ration* Studiorum, 170s, De Antiquissiiiia Italorum Sapient-la, 1710, and Jus Uikiwrsale,1720,containinghisDe UnaetUniversiJurisPrin- cipioetFine,hisDe ConstantiaPkUosophiceandDC Constantia-Pht- luloyias, form a sort of introduction to liis Priiicipii di Scienza JV»/</tvj, \.1'2~2,in which he develops his theoryof the historyof civilization. Of this work, twice .re-written, he published two editions, one in 1730, and another in 1744. In his introductory writings he discusses the question of method, particularly as applied to moral and juridical science, and strives to evolve a metaphysical theory from the analysis of the rootsof the Latin language and from the general studyof philo- L>gy,which,accordingtohim,embraces allthefactsofhistoricalexperi ence. Knowledgeconsistsessentiallyinarelationofcausalitybe- ./ ,/ tweeu the knowing principle and the knowable; since the mind can only know that,which itcan produce through itsown activity; that is to say, the mind can only know those data of experience, which it can convertintotruthbyaprocessofreason. Thisconversion,in-which, according to Vico, lies the principle of all science, neither the psycho logical method, nor the geometrical process introduced by Descartes, can effect; it can only be produced by a method in which certainty and truth, authority and reason, philology and philosophy become united and harmonized, so as to embrace the necessary principles of nature as well as the contingent productions of human activity. To establish a fact which may be converted into truth, to find a principle which has its basis in experience and common sense,yet is in harmony with the eternal order of the universe, is the problem of metaphysics. Thisfactorthisprinciple,accordingtoYico,istobefoundinGod alone. the only true " Ens," who, being an infinite cause, contains in himself allfactsandallintelligence. ThusDivineProvidence,actinginu» mysterious way, but through the spontaneous development of human activity, is the basis of all history, which reveals itself in the evolution of language, mythology, religion, law and government. Whether we accept the Mosaic account, which points ont a state of degradation as a consequence of the Fall, or admit a primitive condition of barbarism, it is certain that at a remote period the h u m a n race was inaconditionnotfarabovethatofthebrutes. Giganticinstature, their bodies covered with hair, men roamed through the forests which    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 475 coveredtheearth,withoutfamily,language,laws,orgods. Tetwithin them, though latent, there were the principles of humanity, sympathy, sociability, pudor, honor and liberty, which, called forth by extraordi nary events, gradually raised them from animalityto the first condition ofhumanbeings. Thisawakeningwascausedbyterrificphenomena of nature, which, stimulating the mind to consciousness, brought a jxirtion of mankind under the influence of a supernatural power, and induced a number of individuals, male and female, to take refuge in cavernsandtocommencetheformationoffamilies. Fromthispoint the dynamic process of civilization was subject to certain laws, which havepresidedoverthedevelopmentofallhistory. Prominentamong these laws is that which has produced the universal belief of all people in the great principles of religion, marriage and burial, which from thefirstbecamethetrue./ter/tfrahumanitatix. Thislawmanifestsitself in all the progress of civilization, which is divided into three different ages,thedivine,theheroic,andthehuman. Thedivineageisthe first stage of civilization, when the chief of the family is king and priest,rulingoverhissubordinatesasthedelegateofheaven. Itis the age of the origin of language, rude and concrete; the age of sacred or hieroglyphic characters ; of right identified with the will of the jfods, and of a jurisprudence identified with theology,— the age of idolatry,divination,mythology,auspicesandoracles. Theheroicage lia» its birth when that portion of mankind which had remained in a savage condition, seeks refuge from the violence of their companions, still more degraded than themselves, in the homes of those families al ready established, and at the feet of the altars erected on the heights. The new-comers are admitted into the family on condition of becom ing servants of their defenders, who now claim to be the offspring of thegods,andheroesbyrightofbirthandpower. Thustheprimitive families are the rulers of the community, enjoying rights which are not accorded to slaves—such as the solemnity of marriage, the pos sessionofland,etc. Graduallythenumberofslavesincreases;they become restless under the domination of their masters, who after long struggle are finally constrained to grant them some of their rights. Jlence the origin of agrarian laws, patronages, serfs, patricians, vas sals, and plebeians, and with them the rise of cities, subject to aristo craticgovernment. Meantimelanguage,losingsomeofitsprimitive rudeness, becomes imaginative and mythologic ; itscharacters become more fantastic and universal; law is no longer from the gods, but from    476 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. the heroes, though still identified with force ; and the duel and retalia tiontakeplaceofsacerdotaljustice. Inthisperiodthepredominance of imagination is so great, that general types become represented bv propernames,andacceptedashistoricalcharacters. Thustheinven tive genius of Egyptians finds a personification in Hermes, the heroism ofancientGreeceinHercules,anditspoetryinllomer. SoRomulus and the other kings of ancient Rome, in whom periods of civilization have been personified, descend to posterity as historical characters. With thegradual development of democracy the human age appears: and with it aristocratic or democratic republics and modern monarchies, establishedmoreorlessontheequalityofthepeople. Languagebe comes more and more positive, and prose and poetry more natural and more philosophic;religionlosesagreatpartofitsmythologicalcharac ter, and tends to morality and to refinement. Civil and political equality is extended, natural right is considered superior to civil legali ty,andprivaterightbecomesdistinguishedfrompublic. Intheper f e c t i o n o f d e m o c r a t i c g o v e r n m e n t s t h e r e is o n l y o n e e x c e p t i o n t o e q u a l i ty,andthatiswealth. Butwealthisthecauseofcorruptioninthose whopossessit,andofenvyandpassioninthosewhodesireit. Hence abuse of power, discoids, insurrections, and civil wars, from which monarchy often arises as a guarantee of public order. Monarchy failing, the country which is rent by corruption and anarchy will finally fall by conquest, or, in the absence of conquest, it will relapse into a state of barbarism equal to that which preceded the divine age, with the only difference that the first was a barbarism of nature, the second will be a barbarism of reflection ; the one is ferocious and beastly,theotherisperfidiousandbase. Onlyafteralongperiodof decadence will that nation again begin the course of civilization, pass ing through its different stages, liable again to fall and rise, thus re volving in an indefinite seriesof"Corsi" and "Ricorsi," which ex press the static and the dynamic conditions of human society. This theory was evolved by Vieo from the history of Rome, making that the typical history of mankind, whose principal fea turesarerepeated.1thehistoriesofallnations. Thusthesame law manifests itself again after the fall of the Roman empire, when in the dark, the middle ages, and modern times, the divine, .the heroic, and the human ages reappear. Civilization therefore in a given people, that is to say, their progress from brutal force to right, from authority to reason, and from selfishness to justice, is    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 477 not the work of legislators and philosophers, not the result of com munication with other communities ; but it is the spontaneous oTowth of their own activity working under the influence of ex o terior circumstances. The primitive elements of their civilization are found only in the structure of their language and mythology, their poetryandtraditions. The"ScienzaNuova,"accordingtoVico,may he regarded as a natural theology, for it shows the permanent action of Divine Providence in human history ; and as a philosophy, for it establishes the basis of the origin and the development of human society,points out theoriginof itsfundamental ideas,and distinguishes therealfromthemythicalinthehistoryofnations. Thisdistinction, so far as it regards the history of Rome, has been fully confirmed by the more recent researches of Niebuhr, Schwegler, and Moimnsen. The book of Vico may also be regarded as the natural history of mankind and a philosophy of law, for it gives the principles of ail historical development and the genesis of the idea of natural right, as deduced from the common wisdom of the people. ThecompleteeditionoftheworksofVicoin6vols,was publishedinMilan,1853-54 (Second Edition), under the editorship of 6. Ferrari, the author of La Mente di 6. B. Vico,1834,animportantworkontheNewScience. G.DelGiudicepublishedin 1802,ScrittiineditidiVico. Vico'sphilosophygavebirthtoaconsiderablebranchof literature containing writings of criticism and exegesis. Among his contemporary opponents may be mentioned Damiano Romano in his Difesa Storiai delleLeggi GrecJte venule a Roma, contro topinione moderna del Signirr Vico, 1736, and in his Lettere ml terzoprindpio della Scienza Nvoua, 1749, in which he defends the Greek origin of the laws contained in the xil. Tables, and opposes the theory on spontaneous formation of languageandcivilization. HeisalsotheauthorofScienzadelDirittoPublico,ofthe Origine della Societd and other works, in which he holds doctrines antagonistic to those ofVico. Finettiin.hisDePrincipiisJurisNaturaeetGentiumadcerisuillobbeniuin, Pufendorfium, Woljium et alios, 1777, and inhis St/mmario deW opposizione dd sistema ferino,elafalsitddditstatoferineattacks thedoctrinesofVicoon theoriginofciviliza tion. HisdefensewasundertakenbyEmanueleDuniinhisOrigineeprogramdelcit- tadino, edelgovemo civile di Roma, 1703, and in his La Scienza del Costume oimia Sistema del Diritlo Universale, 1775 ; also by Ganassoni in his Memoria in difesa del Prindpio delVicosiilTe/riginedettexn. Tatole.;andRogadeiinhisDeWanticostatoeldpopoU <fItaliaCisliberina. AmongVico'sfollowersandimitatorsmaybementionedGiacomo Stellini, in his De Ortu et Progreami morum, 1740, and in his Ethicn, 1764; Mario Pagano, the patriot who suffered death for his adhesion to the Partbenopean Republic, in his Suggi politici d d Prindpii, Progresso e Decadenza dtlle Soctetd, 1785 ; Vincenzo Cuoco, in his Platone in Italia, 1804 ;Gaetano Filaugeri. in his Scienza dellalegirlizione, 1780-85. who adopts many of the principles of Vico, and particularly that of the origi nal incommunicability of primitive myths among different people, and spontaneous origin of historical manifestations ; and Melchiore Delfico who, in his Ricerclie mil rero carattere delta (riurisprudema R o m a n a e de' suoi outtori, 1796, exaggerates the princi    478 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. piesofVicoandfallsintoasystemofhistoricalscepticism. TJgoFoecoloinhiaDit- eorso dflC Origine e deS1 Uffizio delta Lettemtura adopted the doctrines of Vico on the originandthenatureoflanguageaswellassocietyandcivilgovernment. CataMc Janelli, one of the most eminent critics of Vico, in his SuUa Naturti e NeoettitA dfUa ijcienza deUe Cose e delle Storie wnane, 1817, gives the critical analysis of the historical Synthesis, as expressed in the Sciewu Nuuva. of the original and spontaneous growth ofdifferentcivilizations. Heintroducesthethreeagesofthesenses,imaginationand reason in history, corresponding to the divine, heroic, and h u m a n ages of Vico, and char acterizes the last age by the development of Telo&ifoi and Etiolngia, the former the scienceoffinalities,thelatterthatofcausalities. G.D.RomagnosiinhisOmerrasioM tnti Scitiaii Nuota, 1821, and other works, examines the doctrines of Vico from a criti cal point of view, and while he accepts some of his principles he rejects his funda mental idea of the spontaneity of the growth of civilization, and holds that this isalwaystheresultofaderivationfromanotherpeople. LuigiTontiinhisSagyiv Htpra, la Scienza Nvota, 1835, makes a philosophical exposition of the doctrines of Vico, and dwells particularly on the relations existing between Vico, Machiavelli, Gra- vina.Herder,andotherjuristsandphilosophers. F.Predariundertooktheeditionof Vico's works in 1835, but he published only one volume, in which he gave an historical analysisofVice'smindinrelationtothescienceofcivilization. C.Cattaneo,in his Vico e F Ittiliti, 1802 (in the PoHtecnito), holds that Vico succeeded in fusing to gether Machiavelli's doctrine of the supremacy of self-interest with that of the supre macyofreason,asdennedbyGrotius. N.Tommas''O,inStudicritiei,1843,main tains that the idea of progress is apparent in the Sciema Nitoca, inwhich, although the course of history is fixed within the limits of a certain orbit determined by the law of the Corn and Rtcorai, this orbit is not limited, and m a y become wider and wider in theprogressoftime. T.Mamiani,inhisRinnocamentodettaFtiotnjiaantteaItnUana, 1834, adopted the criterium of the conversion of fact into truth as expressed by Vico, hi» doctrine on the unity, identity, and continuity of force, the spontaneity of motion as belonging to a principle inherent to every atom independently of the mass, and the idea of the indivisible, indefinite, and immovable, as evolved from phenomenical reality. And so Rosmini and Gioberti have in their various works endeavored to bring hie authority to the support of their theories, while S. Centofanti, in his Formda logic* dellii Fifvsojia (IMa Storia, 1845, follows Vico in considering historical reality in its ideal genesis, in ascending from experience to the philosophical idea of history, and in con necting under one principle the cosmic, psychologic, and social orders. P. Carmignani, in his 8t/ma deW Oriffini e dei Progre&si delta Fiio»ofia del Diritto, 1851, attributes to him the origin of a true philosophy of jurisprudence, and E. Amari. inhisCnticadiunaScienzadellelegu&azionicvmparate,1857,givesacomplete analysis of his doctrines having relation to the philosophical and historical department of com parativelegislation. A.DeCarlo,inhisFUosofiatetondoiPrindpUdiVicoandLa Mente (ClUttia e O. B. Vico, 1&55 ; Vito Fornari, in his Delhi Vita di Cntto, 1809; G. Zocchi, in his Studi sopra T. Jfenwi, 1865 ; A. Galasso, in his Del Stulema Hegdiano, 1807, and Del Metoda Storico del Vico, 1868; B. Spaventa, Florentine, Vera, Bertrai, Conti, Franchi, Mazzarella and others have either adopted some of the fundamental principlesofVico,orsubjectedhisdoctrinetocriticalexamination. Morerecently P. Sicilian!, in his Sid Rinnotamento della FUo»ofin ponitiva in Italia, 1871, having exa mined all the principal systems of philosophy, rejects them all, and contends that the reconciliation of modern positivism with ancient idealism can only be effected throuch the doctrines of Vico, from which he strives to develop not only a historical philosophy,    ITALIAN PHILOSOPnT. 479 butalogicalandmetaphysicaldoctrine. SicilianiisalsotheauthorofDante,Galileo t Vico, 1865. Other worts of criticism on the philosophy of Vico are Colangelo's Consideraaoni sulla Scienza Nuova, 1821 ; G. De Cesare's Kmimario dcUe dottrine del Vico, 1826 ; S. Gallotti's Principii di una Scderna Nuova di G. B. Vico, 1826 ; P. Jola'B Studio snl Vico, 1841 ; P. S. Mancini's Intorno alia Fihsofia d d Diritto, 1841 ; Delia Valle's Stiggi nulla Scienza ddla Storia, 1844; G. Rocco's Elogio Storico di G. B. Vico, 1844; D.D'OndesReggio'sIntroduzioneai1rincipiidclleUinaneSucietd,1851;C.Marini'sG. B.Vict'alcospettoddSecolo19,1852;C.Giani'sDeW UnicoPrincipioedell'UnicoFine ddV Universo Diritto, 1855 ; E. Fagnani's Delia necessitd e dcW uso ddla Ditinazione UntificatadallaScienzaNuova diVico,1857; B.Fontana's/>(FiUisofiuneJlaStoria,1868; J. Merletta's G. B. Vico e la &i]iienza antichissima degli Italiani, 1869 ; G. De Luca*s Saggio ontiilogico suVe dottrine deW Aquinute e del Vico, 1870 ;C. Cantoni's G. B. Vico, 1867. InGermanythephilosophyofVicofoundinterpretersinF.K.Savignyinhis NtebuJir, 1842; E. Gans in his preface to UegeVs Philosophy of HiMory ; G. Jacoby in his Cantoni uber Vico, 1869 ; F. A. Wolff in the Museum dcr Alterthumswissenschaft, 1807 ; G.OrelliinhisVicoandNiebuhr,1816;G.Weber,thetranslatoroftheScienzaNuova, 1822 ; Giischel in the Zerstreute Blatter, 18:17 ; Cauer in the Germanic Museum, 1857 ; andC.EiMiiller.thetranslatorofVico'sminorworks,1854. InFrance,M.Michelethas interpreted his doctrines in his Principe-i de la Philosophie de CHi*toirc, 1827 ; Ballanche, in his Prolegomenc* din Palingenesie Sociale, and in his Orphee, 1830 ; V. Cousin, in his Introduction a F'ITM'irt'delu Philosophic, 1831 ; Lerminior." in his Introduction generate a Fllistoire dn Droit, 1829 ; Jouffroy, in his Melanges Philosophiques, 1834 ; Bouchez, in his Introduction, dla Science deVllistoire, 1844; the anonymous author of la Science Nouvellepar Vico, 1844 ; A d a m Franck, in the Journal de* Savants, 1867 ; H. de Ferron, in his Theorie du Progres, 1869 ; Vacherot, in his Science et Conscience, 1870; F. Lau rent,inhisEtudessurVllistoiredeVHumanite,vol.xviii.,1870; Barthlomess,inthe Dictionnuire des Sciences PhUosop/iiques, vol. vi; F. Boullier in his Histoiredela Philosophic Cartesienne,1854;C.Renouvier,inhisManueldelaPhilosophicModerne,1842;andA. ComteinhislettertoJohnSt.Mill.Cf.Littr6,A. C'ornteetla.PhilosophicPositire,1861. Among the English philosophers, John Stuart Mill has given attention to the historical principlesofVicoinhisSystemofLogic.Cf.Vico's"NewScienceandAncientWisdomof Italians," in Foreign Review, Lond., vol. v., p. 380; Foreign Quarterly Ileciew, xxxiv. , 289. The philosophic revolution which began with Descartes in France, soonextendedtoItalyandmanifesteditselfinthetwoformsofPsycho- logism (or Idealism), and Sensualism,— represented by Descartes and Malebranehe on the one side, and by Locke and Condillac on the other. Among thefollowersofthePsychologismofDescarteswereTommasoCornelio(d. 1684), who in his Progymnaxmata Physica, 1633, tried to blend the doctrines of Te- lesio with the method of the French philosopher; Michelangelo Fardella (b. 1650), the friend of Amauld and Malebranehe, and the author of Universe PhUosopliijt Systcma, 1691 ; Paolo Doria, who in his Difesa ddla Metafisica, 1732, opposed the doctrines of Locke ; Constantino Grimaldi, who in his Discussioni htoriclie, TetHugiche e Filosofiehe, 1725, vindicated the Cartesian philosophy against the attacks of the Aristotelians of his age ; and Fortunato da Brescia, the authorof Philosophia Mentis methodice tractata, 1749. AmongtheopponentsofAristotlemayalsobementionedS.Basso,PluUmtphias    s 480 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. Natural!* adcersw Aristotelem, libri 12, 1621. The following writers belong to the schoolofDescartesthroughtheu-affinitieswithMalebranche:CardinalGerdil (1718- 1802), who held to the vision of ideas in the divine mind, and opposed the Sensualism ofLocke,theOntologismofWolff,andthePantheismofSpinoza. Amonghisnumerous works the following relate to philosophical subjects : L immateriality de Cdute dimmlti coidre Locke ; Defense du sentiment du P. Malebranclie— sur la nature et Corigine da idee*contreteaamendeMr.Locke; Anti-Emile,or,Reflexion*svrlatlteorieetlapra tique tie Veducation contre les principes de Rousseau ; Traite de* combat* singnliert ; Discours philosoplugue* nur Vhomme ; Dintostrazione maternaltea eontro CeferMtd deBa materia ; Del? inflnito Assoluto consulerato iitUa grandezza ; Esame e coitfuUtzi-me dti principii deUa FHosofla WiAfiana; Introdtmone alio Studio deUa Religion*: Tommaso Rossi, contemporary of Vico, and author of La Meitte Sorrana ; Vincenzo Mieeli. who in the beginning of the eighteenth century strove to reconcile Christian idealism with theEleaticdoctrines,andwhosesystemmaybefoundinV.DiGioanni'swork:Mieeii. ovcerotldCEnte I'noeRente,1804;V.Palmieri,whodefendedChristianityagainstthe materialisticdoctrinesofFrerct andotherFrenchwriters;Carli,whoinhisElemesti di Morale. 1741. attempted a philosophical confutation of Rousseau on the inequality ofmen;T.V.Falletti,who,inhisworkonCondillac,establishedtheprincipleofknow ledge on the idea of being as evolved from the Ego; Draghetti, who founded his Psychology on moral instinct and reason ; G. Torelli, in his treatise De Sihtl/t. 175J1; V. Chiavacci in his Saggio "bulla grandezza di Rio ; C. Degli Orazi in his MeJodo mi- tersnle di filosofare, 1788 ; E. Pini (1750-1815), author of the Protologia. a Latin work, in which he established all principles of knowledge and morality on the unity of the Divine Nature ; P. Giovenale, who in his Soli* intdligentitr, cttinon nieeedit itox. lumen iiideficiensac inextinguibile Muminan* omrtem hominem, 1740, sought in divine illumina tionthesourceofallscience;Tellino,who inhisThese*PhUosojiltiea1deInflnito.1(W1. ascended to the idea of the Infinite as the principle of all knowledge ; a principle which was also regarded as transcendental by Pasqualigo in Disputationes Met'tphgxica. 1016. byM.TerralavoroinMetaphysial,1072,andbyR.G.BoschovichinSullaLeggediCo&- tinuitd. 1750. While the preceding writers were characterized by a Platonic tendency, the follow ing professed themselves disciples of Aristotle :J. Liccto, in his.De Ortu Aninur IJtiman^r. 1592;DeInteMectuAgente,1027. DeLurerni*aittiqitorninreeonditi*;DeAi,mili*a»ti- qui* ; Apologia pro AristoUU. Athei-tini aceunato ; De, Pittate Aristotetis ; G. Polizzo. in his Philosophical Disputationes, 1073 ; A. Andrioli, in his Plttlosophia Erperimentalu, 1708; F. Langhi, in his Xoriasima Philvsophia. 1079 ; G. Jlorandi. in his Curm* Ph&*np/ua, 1007 ; A. Maso. in his Theatrum Pldlosophicum, 105:! ; S. Scrbelloni. in his Phibtnphii. 1C57 ; S. Spinola, in his Korissima Plttlosophia, 1073 ; G. Ambrosini, in his Method** ineentiea, 1025 ; G. B. De Benedetti, in his Plttlosophia Peripatetica, 1088; A. Rocco. in hisEsercitnzionifi'.otofiche,1033. AsEmpiricistsmoreindependentofscholasticinfluence maybementionedG.A.Borelli,theeminentscientist,inhisgreatwork.DeMotuAnimn- lium, 1030, in which animal mechanics were established on scientific principles ;L. Maga- lotti, in his Lettere famigliari against Atheism, 1037 ; G. Grandi, author of a Logic in which he opposed Scholasticism, 1095, and of Diacresi, in which he refuted the doc trinesofP.Ceva,asexpressedinhisPlttlosophiaNovo-Antigua,1726,aworkwrittenin Latin verses, intended as a confutation of Gassendi, Descartes, and Copernicus ;M. A Severino, who in his Pawofta, 1050, strove to investigate nature through the study of ancientmonuments. G.G.MagnenoprecededGassendiintherestorationofthe atomistic philosophy in bis Democritu* reviciscens, and in De Re*tauraU'oite Phitotopki*    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 4S1 Z>em. Epieurea, 1648 ;G. M. Ciassi anticipated Leibnitz in the doctrine of Monades, in his Tntorno (die Forte Vice, 1078, and F. Algarotti called the attention of his contem porariestotheworksofNewtcninhisNetctonuinismo,1733. ThephilosophyofWolff found an exponent in the author of InstUutiones Pliilosophm Wo'.fian®, 1754, and the doctrine of Leibnitz was interpreted in the works of B. Trevisani and T. Cattanco. Meanwhile the questions as to the soul of animals, and the union of the soul with the body, were treated by G. Cadonici in DUsertazionc epistolare, 1708; P. Fassoni, in Libro suW anima delle bestie; L. Barbini, Nuoro Sistema intorno aW anima deibruti, 1750; J. H. Sbaragli, Enteleehia, sen anima sensitiva brutorum demonstrate contra Cartesium, 1710; P. D. Pino, Trattato sojyra Vessenza dtW anima ihlle be.«tie, 1700; C. Vitale, L'unionedelTanimacolcorpo,1775;P.Papi,SuWanimadellebestie,1700;G.P.Monti, A n i m a brutorum, 1742 ; B. Corte, Sul tempo in cui si injbnde Vanima nelfeto, 1702. With the beginning of the eighteenth century, Empiricism was greatlyextended. Atfirstitremainedindependent,butitsoonfell under the influence of the doctrines of Locke and Condillac. AmongtheearlyEmpiricistsofthatagemaybementionedDe Martini,Logicasen Ars coffitandi, 1728; A. Fuginelli, Prina'pia Metaphysial gcomctriai meUiodopertractata, 1755; A. Visconti, Theses ex Unicersa Philosophia., 1741 ; A. Sanctis, Delle passioni e rizi drWintelktto;C.Fromond,NonaIntroductioadPMosophiam,1718;N.Spedalieri,Dei Diritti dtW Homo, 1791 ; F. M. Zanotti, philosophical works, 1703 ; F. Longano, D e W Vomo nuturale, 1704 ;G. Boccalossi, Sulla-liiflessione, 1788 ;I. M. Amati, EtMca ex tem pore conciitnata, 1721; P. Verri, philosophical works, 1788; C. Baldinotti, Tentaminum Mttap/iyskorum, Libri 3, and De Recta Humana! Mentis Institutione, 1787; G. Tettoni, PriacipiidelDirittonuturale,1771;G.Capocasale,CursxsPhUosophicus,1792; I.Bian- chi.Meditozioni;L.A.Muratori,theauthoroftheAnnalsofItaly,andofDdleForzc deWIntiiulimento,1745,DeliaForzadeUaFantasia,andDaFilosofiaMorale,1735;G.V. Gravina, the author of De Origine Juris Ronnini, 1700, and La Ragione poetica, 1704. The influence of the. Sensualistic School of France was chiefly introduced into Italy through the translation of Locke's " Essay on tlut Understanding" by Francesco Soave, a member of the Order of the Somaschi, and the author of Instituzioni di Logiat, MeUifisiai e Morale, 1810, and of many other philosophical works, all moulded on the philosophyofLocke. HisInstituzionihavelongbeenthetext-bookofphilosophical instruction in the Colleges of Northern Italy. The translations of the writings of Bonnet, D*Alembert, Rousseau, Helvetius, Holbach, De Tracy, and, above all, the philosophical works of Condillac gave a powerful impulse to the doctrine, and the philosophy of the senses became predominant in the universities and colleges of the Peninsula. ThepersonalinfluenceofCondillac,whoresidedfortenyearsattheCourt ofParmaastutortoaBourbonprince,greatlycontributedtothisresult. The philosophicaltext-bookswritteninLatinbyP.MakoandS.Storcheneau,bothGerman writers, also greatly added to the propagation of Sensualism in the Italian Schools. Among the representatives of this philosophy may be mentioned, besides Soave already named. G. C. Bini, Lettere Teologiehe eMeUifisiclic, 1740 ;Pavesi, Elementa Logices, Meta- physicei, et Phil. Moralis, 1793 ; F. Barkovich, SaggiosuUe passioni ; C. Rezzonico, SuHa FUmofiudelSetolo18s,1778;M.DeTomaio,InstituzionidiMetajUtiea,1804;I.Valdr.s- tri, Lezioni di analisi ddle Idee, 1807 ; T. V. Lomonaco, Analisi deUa scnsibilitd, 1809 ; P. Schedoni, Delle morali influenze, 1810; Cestari, Tentatiro secondo delta rigenerazione delle Scienze, 1804 ; I. Abba, Elementa Logices et Metaphysices, 1829, Delle Cognizioni    482 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. umane,1832,andLettereaFUomatomillecredenzeprimitive,1835;and"Patio,Blemeata PhilosophimMoralis. OnthesamebasisCicognarasoughttoestablish^Esthetics,in his Del BeUo, 1815 ; It Cesarotti, Philology, in his Sulla Filosofia deUe Scienze, 1806 ; P. Costa, Rhetoric, in his D d modo di comporre, le idee, and P. Borrelli, under the name of Lallebasque, Psychology, in his Prineipii della Genealogia del Pensiero, 1817. To counteract these materialistic tendencies, some -writers endeav ored to construct a philosophy ou the basis of Revelation, while others sought refuge in a kind of Eclecticism. AmongthefirstmaybementionedPremoli,DeetistentiaDei,1754;G.B.Riccioli, DedistinctionsentiuminDeoetincreaturis,17G9;F.M.Sicco,LogicaetMetaph.Insti- tutiones, 1741 ; P. A. Semery, Triennium Philosophicum, 1708 ; G. A. Ferrari, PJal<m>- phia Peripatetica adcersus teteres et recensiores prasertim PhUosoplios, 1748; and G. Leti, Nihil sub Sole Novum, and De unico rerum naturalium formali principio, ten de SpiritaMateriali,1718. AmongthesecondclasswereCeva,alreadymentioned; Maria C. Agnesi, Propositùmes Philosophies, 1738 ; E. Corsini, Institution** Phtf.osofJiic* uè Matematico}, 1731; G. Gorini, Antropologia, 1758; Luini, Meditazione Filotvfie*. 1778: C.I.Ansaldi,RiflessionisullaFilosofiaMorale,1738,De traditioneprincipiorvm legis naturalis, 1742, and Vindicim Maupertuisinnm, 1754 ; G. B. Scarella. Element* Logica; Ontologia, Psycdnght et Teologia naturalis, 17C2 ; and above all, Antonio G«no- vesi (1712-1769) in his Ekmenta Mdaphysices, 1763 ; Elementorum Artis Logico-Critiar. 1759; Instituzioni delle Scienze Metafisiclie; Logica pei Giovanetti; Diceosina or moni science;MeditazioniFàosoficJie;ElementidiFisicasperimentale;andinhisLezioni<& Commercio e di EeonAnia Citile, which work contains his lectures on political economy, delivered from the chair established in the University of Naples, in 1754. by his friend Interi, a wealthy Florentine who resided in that city. To this same Schoo! may be referred J. Galiani, tne author of Trattato della moneta, 1750, and tin Dialogues stir le Commerce de Uè, 1770 ; F. Bianchini, who, in his Storia UnitersaU. 1697, strove to separate history from its legendary elements by a philosophic interpre tation of ancient monuments ; P. Giannone, who, in his Storia arile del Regno di Napoli, 1724, put in evidence the usurpations of the Church over the State, and boldly asserted the independence of the latter ; and Cesare Beccaria, the author of Dei Delitti e delle Pene, 1764— a work which, more than any other, has contributed to a radical re formofpenallawinEurope. Cf.StoriadellaLetteraturaItalianadiG.Tiraboschi, 1826-36 ; Della Stoi-ia e detf Indole (fogni Filosofia di A. Cromaziano (Appiano Buona fede), 1782-84; Delia Ristanrazione (Fogni Filosofia nei Secoli 15°, 16°, 17°, by thesanv? writer, 1785-89; DeW Origine e Progresso d'ogni Letteratura, by G. Andres; / Secali della Letteratura Italiana, di G. B. Corniani continuata da S. Ticozà e C. tigoni ls>5fi; StoriadellaLetteraturaItaliananelSecolo18',diA Lombardi,1827;HistoireUttérair' <fItalie, par P. L. Ginguène— eontinuée par F. Salfi, 1834; Storia della Letteratura Italiana, di G. Maffei, 1853 ; Storia, della Letteratura Italiana, di P. emiliani Giudici, 1855. Cf.alsoSupplementiaUaStoriadellaFilosofiadiTennemann,byBomagnosiand Poli,1834. OnGenovesicf.GenovesibyS.Racciopi,1871,andonBeccariaBeccar» eilDirittoPenalebyC.Cantù,1863. Contemporary Philosophy. The predominance of French philosophy, in the eighteenth and in    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHT. 483 the early part of the nineteenth century, made the ideas of the French encyclopedists and sensualists popular among the more advanced thinkersofItaly. Theprogressofnaturalscience,ofjurisprudence arid political economy contributed to foster the habit of mental inde pendence, while the national spirit which had penetrated Italian litera ture from the age of Dante, became more powerful than ever, especially through the writings of Vittorio Alfieri, who, in his Misoyatto, earnestly opposed the prevailing influence of French thought, and in his trage dies strove to excite his countrymen to noble and independent deeds by the dramatic representation of ancient patriotism. This spirit •was afterwards kept alive by the poetry of Ugo Foscolo and Giacomo Leopardi, the satires of Parini and Giusti, the political writings of *.!;.-/.ini.the historical novels of Guerrazzi and Azeglio, the tragedies of Manzoni and Niccolini, fcnd the historical works of Carlo Troya, Colletta,CarloHotta,SlidCesareBalbo. Butnodepartmentofmental activity contributed so powerfully to the advance of the national sen timent as philosophy, which, embodying the aspirations of the people, aimedtogivethemascientificbasisandarationaldirection. Inits development it passed through the same phases as in France, England, and Germany, adjusting itself to the wants of the country, yet keeping on the whole an independent character. The Italian contemporary philosophymaybedividedasfollows:1.Empiricism. 2.Criticism. 3. Idealism. 4. Ontologism. 5. Absolute Idealism or Ilegelianism. 6.Scholasticism. 7.Positivism. 1. EMPIRICISM. Of this School Melchiorre Gioja (1767- 1829) is thefirstrepresentative. HewasborninPiacenza,andearlydevoted himselftothecauseoflibertyandnationalindependence. Withthe advent of Napoleon in Italy he entered public life, and advocated a Ilepnblicangovernment. UndertheCisalpineRepublichewasap pointedhistoriographeranddirectorofnationalstatistics. Withthe tall <>f Napoleon he retired from office ; and twice suffered imprison ment for his liberal views. Accepting the doctrines of Locke and Condillac, Gioja strove to apply them to the social and economic sciences in the defence of human rights, and the promotion of wealth, andhappinessamongthepeople. InhisElementidiFtlvsojin,1818, he defines the nature of external observation, and describes its methods its instruments, its rules, and the other means through which ita sphere maybeextended. Thefoundationofallscience,accordingtohim, lies iu the science of Statistics, which supplies the phenomena of scieu    4S4 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. titic investigation, classifies them, and brings them under general laws. Thus Statistic embraces nature and mind, man and society;itorigi nates in philosophy and ends in politics, to which it reveals the eco nomic resources of nations,wealth, poverty, education, ignorance, virtue, andvice. ThisprocesshefollowsinhisFllosojiudtHaStatistioa,lS2tf, in which he reduces all economic and political phenomena to certain fundamental categories, the bases of social science, and the criteria of productiveforcesinsociety. Hefollowsthesamemethodindefining the nature of socialmerit in his Del Merita e delle Ricompense, ISIS : fixing itsconstituent elements, he verifies them in the history of nations, and by their presence or absence traces the different degrees of their civilization. A followerofCondillacinpsychology,Giojaisthedisci pleofBaconinhismethod,andofBenthaminhismorals Thegen eral good constitutes the source of duty, right, and virtue ; even self- sacrificespringsfromutility. Imaginationandillusionplayagreat part in h u m a n life, indeed it is only through these faculties that m a n excelsotheranimals. Throughthemhelovesfame,wealth,andpower, hisgreatestmotivestoaction. Virtueitselffindsitsbestcompensation in illusion, and religion has in the eyes of a true statesman no other value than the influence it exerts on the people. Gioja wrote also Teoria Civile e Penale del Divorzio ; Indole, Estenxione e Vantaggi dfllaStatistical,;Nuovo ProspcttodelleScienseEconomise;Ideolo gia,1822;and 11Nuovo Gakitco. Gf.ElogioStoricodiM. Gioja. by Romagnosi, 1829, Discorso su Gioja, by Falco, 1866, and Es*at sur PHistoiredelaPhilosophical ItalieauDix-Neuvieme Sieclt,\^ Louis Ferri, 1869. Gian Donienico Romagnosi (1761-1835), the eminent jurist,marks a stepinadvanceintheempiricphilosophy. HewasborninPiaeenza, supported the government of Napoleon in Lombardy, and held a pro fessorshipofjurisprudenceinParma,Pisa,andMilan. InISIShe wastriedfortreasonagainstAustria,andacquitted. Hispsychologic doctrines are contained in his Che Cosa e la Mcnte Sana, 1827; La Supremo, Economia deW Umano Sapcre, 1828 ; Vcdutefondameiitali sulT Arte loyica, 1832 ; Dottrine della Ragione. AV'hile he admits the general tenets of Coudillac, he rejects tho notion that our ideas are buttransformedsensations. lierecognizesinthemindaspecific sense, the logical, to which he attributes the formation of universal ideasandidealsyntheses. Itisthisfacultywhichperceivesdiffer ences and totalities, as well as all relations which form the chain of    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 485 creation. The harmony between the faculties of the mind and the forcesofnatureisthefoundationofallphilosophy. Itisthrough the logical sense that that harmonv is reached, and the connection and co-ordination of mind and nature are effected. Itssphere, however, islimitedtoexperience,andisthereforeessentiallyphenomenal. The realityofnature,cause,substanceandforceescapesourmind. Mora* obligation arises from the necessary conjunction of our actions with thelawsofnature,inreferencetoourownperfection. Theidealof this perfection, formed from experience and reason, constitutes the ra tionalnecessityofmoralorder. Rightisthepowerofdoingwhatever is in accordance with that order;hence right issubordinate to duty. Hence, too, human rights are inalienable and immutable ;they are not created by law, but originate in nature, and culminate in reason. Civil society is the child of nature and reason, and not the offspring of anarbitrarycontract,asRousseaubelieved. Civilizationisthecreation of the collective intelligence, in the pursuit of the ends established by nature. Itisbothinternalandexternal;thefirstistheresultofthe circumstances amidst which a nation may find itself,in relation to its own perfection ; the second istransmitted from one people to another, andmodifiedbylocalcauses. Asageneralrule,civilizationisalways exteriorly transmitted through colonies or conquest, or communicated byThesmothetes(law-givers),foreignornative. Roinagnosidevelops these ideas in his Tntroduzione alio Studio del Dlritto Publico Univer sale, 1805 ; Principii della Scienza del Diritto, 1820 ; Delia Natura ed<?FattorideWIncivilimento,1832. HisDella GenesidelDiritto Penale, 1791, in which he limits the right of punishment to the neces sity of social defence, has contributed, not less than the work of 13ee- caria on crimes and punishments, to the reform of penal law in Europe since the beginning of the present century. A complete edition of Ro- magnosi's works was published in Milan, 1840, under the editorship of A. De Giorgi. Cf. La Mente di G. D. Roinagnosi by G. Ferrari, 1835, his Biografia by C. Cantu, 1861, and Ferri, op. tit. 2. Criticism. This philosophic scheme proposes to establish the validityofknowledgebytheanalysisofthought. ItschiefItalian representative is Pasquale Galuppi (1770-1846). He was born in Calabria, and held a professorship of philosophy in the University of Naples. A student of Descartes, Locke, Condillac, and Kant, he di rected his attention chiefly to psychology, which in connection with ideologyconstitutes,accordingtohim,allmetaphysicalscience. Phi-    486 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. losophy is the science of thought in its relation to knowledge and to action;henceitistheoreticalorpractical. Theformerembraces,1. Pure Logic, which occupies itself with thought, that is,with timjorM ofknowledgewhichisindependentofexperience. 2.Ideologyand Psychology, the science of thought and of its causes, and, 3. Mixed Logic, which considers empiiic thoughts, the matter of knowledge, and unites the principles of pure reason with the data given by sensations. Practical philosophy, or Ethics, considers thought in relation to the will,the motivesandrulesofitsactions. TothisNaturalTheologyis added, which from the conditional evolves the unconditional and from therelativetheabsolute. Philosophyfromanotherpointofviewmay alsohedividedintosubjectiveand objective,asitsobjectisthemind itself,ortherelationswhichuniteittotheexternalworld. Thefun damental problem of philosophy isfound in the question of the reality ofknowledge. RejectingthesolutionofitgivenbyLockeandCon di1lac, he accepts the distinction of Kant between the form and the matter, the pure and the empiric elements in human thought ; but he insists that by making the former the product of the mind, the philo sopher of Konigsberg rendered it a merely subjective function, inade knowledge entirely subjective, and paved the way for the Scepticism ofHume. .Realisminknowledgecanonlybeobtainedfromthe assumption of two principles : 1st, the immediate consciousness of the Ego;2d,theobjectivityofsensation. Theconsciousnessofthesub stantiality of the Ego is inseparable from the modifications of our sensibility ; at the same time sensation, either internal or external, is not merely a modification of our existence, but is essentially objective; itaffectsthesubjectandcontainstheobject. Ourmindisthusindi rect communication with itself and the external world through a rela tion which is not arbitrary, as Reid supposed, but essential, necessary, anddirect. Thisrelationisexpressedintheimmediatesentimentof the metaphysical unity of the E</o, which thus becomes the foundation ofknowledge. FromtheprimitiveconsciousnessoftheEgo,andof the non-Ego, the mind rises to distinct ideas through reflection, aided by analysis and synthesis— the analysis preceding the synthesis— by dis tinguishing the sensation both from the Eyo, and the object which pro duced it. Thus an idea isessentially an analytic product, although itmay beconsideredassynthetic,iurelationtothesubstantialunityof theEgoinwhichitisformed. Although all knowledge of reality is developed from the conscious-    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 487 ness of experience, there is a previous element in the mind which rendersthatdevelopmentpossible. Thiselementissubjective,thatis, itisgivenbytheminditselfinitsown activity,andconsistsinthe immediate perception of the identity of our ideas, from which arises metaphysical evidence or logical necessity, which forms the basis of allphilosophicalreasoningandscientificcertainty. Thuseveryjudg ment based on logical necessity proceeds from the principle of iden tity, which in its negative form becomes the principle of contradic tion. It is therefore analytical ; indeed no synthetic; judgment d priori is admissible, and those which were held as such by Kant may all be reduced to analytical ones, in which the attribute is contained in the subject, and which therefore are based on identity. General ideas are all the product of comparison and abstraction ; none of them are innate, although they are all natural, that is to say, the productofmentalactivity. Thusfromtheperceptionofbodiesthe mind evolves the ideas of plurality, extension, and solidity; from these the idea of matter ; and through further analysis, those of sub stance,causality,timeandspace. Theyareallanalytical,subjective and objective ; analytic because derived through analysis from identity, subjectivebecauseelaboratedbytheactivityofthemindoutofitsown consciousness, and objective because contained in the objective percep tions of sensibility. A spiritualist in psychology, Galuppi maintains the unity, the simplicity, the indivisibility and the immortality of the human soul, which he considers as a substantial force, developing into various faculties as it becomes modified by diverse surrounding circum stances, from the consciousness of the Eyo and of the non-Eyo rising toabstractanduniversalprinciples. Remaining,however,withinthe bonds of empiricism, though he places the human mind above nature, yet he also holds that it cannot attain to the knowledge of itsown essence, or of the essence of matter, nor understand the origin of the universe,andtheprocessesofitsdevelopment. InEthicsherejects both the doctrine of Ilelvetius, which founds morality on the instinct of pleasure, and that of Wolff and Romagnosi, who derive its essence fromournaturallongingforperfection. Firstamongmodernphilo sophers of Italy, he established with Kant the absolute obligation of moral law, and its pre-eminence above self-interest and self-perfection. Happiness is a motive to our actions ; it is not the essence of moral obligation,northesourceofvirtue. Absoluteimperatives,orpractical    iS8 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. judgmentsapriori,suchas"Doyourduty,"areatthefoundationof moral law ; they originate from the very nature of practical reason, which contains also the principle of the final harmony between virtue and happiness— expressed in the moral axiom " Virtue merits reward, andvicepunishment." Fromthisprincipleaswellasfromourown consciousness he demonstrates the freedom of the will, both as a p#v- chological and moral fact. Natural religion has for itsobject the exist ence of God, of whom we may obtain the idea by risingfrom the con ditional to the unconditional, from the finite to the infinite, and from therelativetotheabsolute. Thisideaissubjective:itisdeveloped fromthatofidentity,that,is,theoneisincludedintheother. Butwe reach also the existence of infinite reality through the principle of causality,andinthissensetheideaofGodisobjective. Theismalone can reconcile the infinite goodness of G o d with the existence of evil ; a reconciliation, however, which is imperfect, from the very fact that human reason cannot understand all the relations which exist between allbeings. Godisincomprehensible,creationisamystery,miracles are a possibility, and revealed religion is an important aid to onr edu cation. Cf.L.Ferri,op.cit.,andIt.Mariano,LaPhilosophicContem- poraine en Ltalie, 1SGS. The following are the works of Galuppi : Saggio FUosqfico sulla Critlca della Conoseema, 1819-32; Letter? Fllosofiche suite Vicende della FUosofia intorno ai Prineipii dtlla, C o n o s c n z a U m a n a d a C a r t e s i o f i n o a K a n t , 1 8 2 7 '; E l e m e n t i d i F t - losqfia, 1S20-27 ; Lezioni di Logica e di Metajlsica, 1832—36 ; Fili* sojuidellaVolontd,1S32-40;ConsiderazionisuWIdealismotrascen- dentala e sid Itazionalismo assoluto, 1841. ThefollowingwritersmaybereferredpartlytoEmpiricism,andpartlytoCriticism: — P.Tamburini,IntroduzionealioStudwddlaFUosofiaMorale,1821; ElementaJitri*Xa- turce,1815;CennisiiilaPerfettibiUtddtW Umana Famiglia,1825;A.Ceresa.Prineipiit LeggigeneralidiFUosofiaeMedieina, 1817; F. Zantedeschi, ElementidiPsieologiaEmpirica 1832 ; B. Poli, Saggio FUotofico sopra la Swola dei modernifilosofi naturalisti, 1827 ;Saggio cFun Corsodi Filosofia ; and Primi Elementidi FUosofia, 1833 ;G. Ricci. in his C'ottsiuitmo (AntologiadiFirenze.1826),Rivato,Ricobelli.andDevincenzi,whowroteontheFrench Eclecticism in the CommentarideW Alencodi Brescia, 1828-31 ; G. Lusverti, Inxtituzioni Logico-lfetafisiche,1828;M. Gigli,AnalisidnUe.Idee,1814; D. Bini,LezioniLogieo-itfta- fixieo Morali, 1818; C. A. Pezzi, Lezioni di FUosofia della mente e del more ; Accordino, ElementidiFUosofia,1830. ZeUi,ElementidiMetafisim,1830;G.Alberi,DdXaciWe, 1824;A.Gatti,PrineipiidiIdeologic/-,1827. G.Passeri,Ddlanaturaumanasocietoie, 1815; DeW umana perfezione, 1822; G. Scaramuzza, Esame analiUco ddUi facoliA di*■»• tire, 1823 ; Bonfadini, Sulk Categoric di Kant. 1831 ; Bruschelli, Prdectiones Logico- Mctaphisicm, 1831. Bellura, La Coseieiua, 1829 ; E. Fagnani, Storia naiurale ddla    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 4S9 potenza umana, 1833. Delle intime relazioni in cui progrediscono la Filosofia, la Religione e la. Libertà, 1803; De Ocheda, Della Filosofia degli Antichi, 18.'!I ; Pizzo- lato, Introduzione allo Studio detta Filosofia, 1832; 6. L. DomowBki, a Jesuit, In stitution!s Philosophic®, 1841; A. Testa, La Filosofia del Sentimento, 1830; Iji Filosofia dell' Intelligenza, 1830 ; Esame e discussione della Critica della Ragione Pura ài Kant, 1843-40 ; Critica del Nuovo Saggio suW Origine delle Idee di A. Rosmini, 1842 ; V. DeGrazia,Saggiosullarealtàdellaconoscenzaumana,1847;A.Cattura-I.ettieri, Dialoghi filosofici suW intuizione, 1800 ; Introduzione alla Filosofia monde e al Liiilto razionale, 1802; A. Longo, Pensieri filosofici, 1810; Teoria della conoscenza, 1851; Dimostrazione analitica delle facoltà dell' anima, 1K52 ; V. Tedeschi, Elementi di Filo sofia, 1832 ; P. S. Mancini, Elementi di Filosofia, 1830 ; Mantovani, Traduzione della Critica della Ragione Pura di Kant, 1822 ; B. Mazzarella, Critica della Scienza, 1800; Della Critica, 1807. Empiricism was applied to ^Esthetics by M. Delfico in his Nuove Ricerche sid Bello, 1818; Talia, Princijni di Estetica, 1827; Ermes Visconti, &iggi sul Bello, 1835, and Riflessioni idcologicìie intorno al linguaggio grammaticale dei popoli colti; G. Venanzio, Callofilia, 1830 ; 6. Zuccaia, Principi! eMetici, 1835; P. Lichtenthal, Estetica; G. Longhi, Callografia, 1830; and L. Pasquali, lnsliluziind di Estetica, 1»27. Zuccaia and Lichtenthal, however, separate them selves from the empirical School, and strive to find the essence of beauty in the idea. The same principles of Empiricism were followed by writers who undertook to con struct a genealogy of sciences, such as L. Ferrarese in his Saggio di una nuova classifi cazionedelleScienze,1828. He isalsotheauthorofDellediversespeciedifollia,1830; Ricercheintornoall'originediWistinto,1834, Trattatodellamonomaniasuicida,1835. G. De Pamphilis in his Geografia del'j> Scibile considerato nelXn sua unità di utile e di fine,1830;andD.RossettiinhisDelloScibileedelsuoinsegnamento,1832. Amongthe writers on Pedagogy who followed empirical doctrines may be mentioned Pasetti in his Saggio suW Educazione fisico-morale; 1814. S. Raffaele, Opere Pedagogiche, 1820; L. Boneschi, Precetti di Eilucazione; A. Fontana, Manuale per l'Educa zione umana, 1834 ; Parravicini in his various educational works ; F. Aporti, Manuale di Educazione e di Ammaestramento per le Scuole infantili, 1833; P. As- sarotti, Istruzione dei Sordi-Muti; Bazutti, Sullo stato fisico intellettuale e morale deiSordi-Muti, 1628; S. De Renzi, SiuT indole dei deciti, 1829; and G. B. Fan- tonetti. Della Pazzia, 1830. Among the historians who followed the doctrines of historicalcriticismmaybenamedF.RossiinhisStudiStorici,1835;CarloDeninainhis Rivoluzioni d'Italia, 1808; Pietro Verri in his Storia di Milano, 1798 ; K. di Gregorio in hisConsiderazionisullaStoriadiSicilia; P.CollettainhisStoriadelRegnodiNapoli, 1820; C. «Botta in his Storia della Guerra dell' Indipendenza Americana, 1809; and Storia d'Italia, continued from that of Guicciardini, 1824. ; N. Palmieri in his Saggio Storico e Politico sulla Costituzione del Regno di Sicilia, 1847; C. Cantù in his Storia Universale, 1847; and Storia degli Italiani, 1850. Also by Micali in his L'Italia avanti ilDominio de' Romani, 1810; A. Mazzoldi in his Delle Origini Italiche, 1840; Lamperdi in his Filosofia degli Etruschi, 1872 ; Berchetti in his Filosofia degli antichi pojioli, 1812 ; D. Sacchi in his Stona dilla Filosofia Greca, 1820; G. R. Roggero in his «ori. della Filosofia da Cartesio a Kant, 1808 ; Raguisco, Storia delle Categorie da Taletead Hegel, 1871; F. Sclopis, Storia detta Legislazione Itidiana; C. Farini, Stati Romani, 1850 ; and G. La Farina, Storia d'Italia did 1815 al 1848. 3. Idealism.—Whatever may be the value of the psychological investigations of Galuppi, and the seeming "realism" by which his    490 TTALIAN PHILOSOPHY. theory is characterized, his doctrine, founded as it was on the subjective activity of the miiid in connection with experience, could not supply an objective foundation for science ; it therefore left the problem of knowledgeunsolved. Toestablishtheobjectivityofhumanthought on an independent and absolute principle was the task which Antouio Rosmini (1797-1855),the founderof modem Idealism in Italv,pro posedtohimself. liewasborninRoveretointheItalianTyrol,and receivedhiseducationattheUniversityofPadua. In1821heentered the priesthood, and at a later period founded a religious institute of charity, whose members devote themselves to the education of youth and the ecclesiastical ministry. In 1848 he was charged by King (Jharlcs Albert with a mission to Rome, the object of which was to in duce Pius IX. to join the Italian Confederation, and to allow the citizens of the R o m a n States to participate in the W a r of National Independence. His efforts at first promised success; lie was made a member of the Papal Cabinet and was even invited to the honors of the Cardiualate. But the influence of the reactionary party in the Church having become predominant, the Pope withdrew from the liberal path on which he had entered, Rosmini's proposal was rejected, and the ambassador himselfdismissedindisgrace. liereturnedtohisretreatatStress on the Lago Maggiore, where he again devoted himself to the work of the restoration of philosophy, for which he had so long labored. Philosophy, according to Rosmiui, is the science of the ultimate rea sons ; the product of highest reflection, it is the basis of all sciences in the universal sphere of the knowable, embracing ideality, reality ami morality,thethreeformsunderwhichBeingmanifestsitself. Hence there are three classes of philosophical sciences: 1st, the Sciences of intuition, of which ideality is the object, such as Ideology and Logic; 2d, the Sciences of perception, the object of which is reality, as given in the sensibility, such as Psychology and Cosmology; 3d, the Sciences of reason, whose object is not immediately perceived, but is found through the inferences of reason, such as Ontology and Deontology ; the former considering Being in itself and in its three intrinsic rela tions ; the latter, Being in its ideal perfection, of which morality is the highestcomplement. Ideologyisthefirstscience;itinvestigatesthe origin, the nature, and the validity of ideas, and with Logic establishes the principle, the method, and the object of philosophic investigation. His Ideologic and Logical works, containing the fundamental principle of his system, and the germ of all his doctrines, are as follows : 3r«o<v Sagyio sutt' Origine delle Idee, 1830; 11liinnovamento ddla Filog<yia    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 491 in Italia, 1836, a polemical work directed against Mamiani ; Intro- duzionealiaFilosojia,1850,andLaLogioa,1853. Having reduced the problem of knowledge to the intellectual per ception of reality, Rosmini examines and rejects the solutions given bytheprincipalphilosophersofancientandmoderntimes, liehow ever accepts the views of Kant on the essence of that perception, and placesitinasyntheticjudgmentapriori,thesubjectofwhichisgiven byoursensibility,andtheattributebyourmind;theonebeingfurnished byexperience,theotherhavingatranscendentalorigin. Butagainst Kant he contends, that this transcendental element is one and object ive, not plural and subjective ; it is not evolved by the activity of the m i n d , b u t a l t h o u g h e s s e n t i a l l y u n i t e d t o it, it h a s a n a b s o l u t e , o b j e c t i v e andindependentexistence. Thiselement,theobjectiveformofthe mind, to which all Kantian forms may be reduced, is Being in its ideality (? Ensere ideale), which contains no real or ideal determina tions, but is ideal activity itself, deprived of all modes and outlines, the potential intelligibility of all things, native to the mind, the light of reason, the source of all intelligence, the principle of all objectivity, and the foundation of all knowledge. Essentially simple, one and identical for all minds, universal, necessary, immutable and eternal, theideaofbeingistheconditionofallmentalacts;itcannotoriginate from reflection, abstraction, or consciousness ; it has a divine origin ; indeeditistheveryintelligenceofGod,permanentlycommunicatedto thehumanmindundertheformofpureideality. Alltranscendental ideas, logical principles, identity, contradiction, substance, causality, the very idea of the Absolute, are potentially contained within it, and become distinct through the process of reflection. It is only through the synthesis of sensibility and ideality, that man intellectually perceives the existence of realities. To think is to judge, says Rosmini, and to think of reality is to judge that it is actually existent. To this judgment sensibility gives the matter or the subject, mind the form or the attribute, by applying to the former the attribute of existence ; while the substantial unity of our nature, at once sentient and intelligent, affords the basis on which that synthesisisaccomplished. Thusreality,whichissubjective,thatis to say, is essentially connected with sensibility, becomes objectively known through the affirmation of its existence. Thus ideality alone isknowablejp<?/'se; whilerealityactingonour sensibilityisperceived only through ideality. Through the faculty of universalizing, se    492 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. parating the possibility, or the intelligibility, or the essence (these terms have the same meaning) of the objects so perceived, the luiiid forms universal ideas, which are thus but specific determinations of the infinite ideality. Logic establishes the truth of knowledge and the foundation of its certainty. Now truthisaqualityofknowledge;thatistosay,oar knowledgeistrue,whenthatwhichweknowexists. Truthis,ac cordingly, the same as existence, and as existence is the form of our intelligence, BO our mind, in its very structure, is in the posses sion of truth. No error is possible on this subject; for the idea of existence is affirmed in the very act of denying it. Xo de lusion is possible as to its modes ; for that idea has no mode, or deter mination. Soallspecificideasandlogicalprinciplesarefreefrom error ; for they represent mere possibilities, considered in themselves and without relation to other things. The same may be said of the primitive judgment, in which the existence of reality is affirmed. Confining ourselves to the simple affirmation of the actual existence of theobjectasitisgiveninsensibility,we cannoterr; errorbeginswhen we undertake to affirm more than we perceive, or when we assert rela tions between ideas which do not exist. Error, therefore, is always voluntary,althoughnotalwaysafreeact;itmay occurinthereflex, butneverinthedirectorprimitiveknowledge. On theseprinciples, Rosmini rejects the doctrine of H u m e and Berkeley as to the validity of our knowledge. Ilosmini's psychological, cosmological, and ontological ideas are con tained in his Psicoloyia, 1846-50, Antropologia, 1S38, Teodic&i, 1828, and TiMsofia, 1859. Psychology considers the human souUn itsessence, development, and destiny. A fundamental sensibility (Scntim-fnto fondainentale), substantial and primitive, at once corporeal and spiri tual, having two terms, one of which is a force acting in space, the otheridealityitself,constitutestheessenceofthesoul. Itisactiveand passive; itisunited with internal and external extension,and itsbody hasdoublerelationtoit,ofsubjectivityandofextra-subjectivity. It isone,simpleandspiritual,and bythisqualityitisessentiallydistin guishedfromthesoulsofmereanimals. Havingforitsaimandend the potential ideality of all things, it will last as long as this intuition: it is therefore immortal, although its term of extenJiwn will perish withthedisorganizationofthebody. Lifeconsistsinfundamental sensibility, the result of that double hypostatic relation, in which the    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 493 bodv partakes of the subjective life of the soul, and the soul of the im- niortalitvoftheinfiniteideal. Cosmologyconsidersthetotalityandthe orderoftheuniverse,itspartsandtheirrelationstothewhole. Asreal- itv is essentially connected with sensibility, so that the idea of the one involves the idea of the other, Rosinini admits a primitive sensibility in matter, and holds, with Cainpanella, that chemical atoms are endowed with a principle of life. Hence a hierarchy of all beings exists in nature, from the primitive elements to the highest organisms, a hierarchy founded on the basis of the different degrees of sensibility, withwhichtheyareendowed. Hence,also,heaffirmstheexistenceof a universal soul in nature, much like that admitted by Giordano Bruno, whose sphere is indefinite space ; a soul one in itself, yet multi plied and individualized in the numberless existences of the universe. Spontaneous generation is a natural consequence of the theory of universal life. Ontology includes Theology ; but while the former considers the essence of Being, its unity and the trinity of its forms in the abstract, the latter regards it in its substantial existence, as the absolute cause and finality of the universe. The intelligibility of tilings, as revealed to the human mind, being only potential and ideal, cannot properly be called God, who is the absolute realization of the infinite essence of being, and therefore contains in the unity of his eternal substance an infinite intelligibility, as well as an infinite reality and morality, a reality which is essentially an infinite sensibility, and amoralitywhichisessentiallyaninfinitelove. Itisthereforenot through a natural intuition, but through the process of reasoning that themindacquiresaknowledgeofanexistingGod. Itisbyreflecting on the logical necessity and the immutability which belong to ideality, on the conditions required by the existence of contingent realities, and the nature of moral obligation, that, by the process of integration, our reason is led to believe in the existence of an Absolute Mind, the sourceofallintelligibility,reality,andmorality. Thustheideaof G o d is essentially negative, that is to say, affirms his existence, but it excludes the comprehension of his nature. Creationistheresultofdivinelove. TheAbsoluteBeingcannot butlovebeing,notonlyinitself,butinallthepossibilitiesof itsmani festations. Itisbyan'*infinitelywiseabstraction''thattheDivineMind separates from itsown intelligibility the ideal type of the universe ;and it is by an " infinitely sublime imagination" that it makes it blossom, asagrandrealityinthespace. Yettheuniverseisdistinctfromthe    494 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. C r e a t o r , b e c a u s e it is n e c e s s a r i l y l i m i t e d a n d f i n i t e ; a n d a s s n c h it c a n n o t be confounded with the Infinite and the Absolute, although it is identi fied with it in its ideal type, which indeed flows from the very b o s o m of theDivineNature. ThuscreationinitsidealessenceisGod;bntit isnotGodinitsrealization,whichisessentiallyfinite. InhisTefxii&sa, Rosmini strives to show that the existence of evil does not stand in contradiction with an allwise and omnipotent Providence. Man is necessarily limited, and evil is a necessary consequence of his limita tion. Perfectwisdominitsactionmustnecessarilyfollowimmutable laws, which in their intrinsic development will come in antagonism with partial forces, and produce discords in the universal harmony. Sucharethelaws"ofthemaximum goodtobeobtainedthroughthe minimum, of action ;". " the exclusion of all superfluities :" " the graduation of all things and their mutual dependence;" " the nniTer- sal law of development ;" " the existence of extremes and their mutual antagonism ;" finally, " the unity and the celerity of the divine action,"whichpresidesoverthegovernmentoftheuniverse. The problemofthepossibilityofabetterworldhasnomeaning:Godmay create numberless worlds, but each of them will always be best in rela tion to its own object. As from a box full of golden coins we can only draw golden coins, so the Creator cau only draw from his own mind thatwhichisbest. Deontology considers the archetypes of perfection in all spheres, and the means through which they may be realized. Moral science, including the philosophy of right, is one of its principal branches. This is treated by Rosmini in the following works : / Princij_rii <lrl!<t Seiema Mbrale,1831. ;Storia Cumparativae CriticadeiSwtemiMorali, 1837; Antropologia, 1838; Trattato delta Cosdema Morale, 1844; FilunojiadelDiritto,1841-43;OpuscoliMorali,1841. Theessence of morality consists in the relation of the will to the intrinsic order of being, as it reveals itself to our mind ; hence the supreme moral prin cipleisexpressedintheformula: "Recognizepracticallybeingasyon know it;" or, " Adapt your reverence and love to the degree of worth ofthebeing,andactaccordingly." Theideaofbeinggivingusdie standard of this recognition, implies the first moral law, which is tin;- identified with the p r i m u m notum, the first truth, the very light of reason. Hencemoralgoodisessentiallyobjective,consistinginthe relationofthewilltoidealnecessity. Thusmoralityisessentially distinct from utility, the former being the cause, the latter the effect;     ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 495 hence Eudemonology, the science of happiness, cannot be confounded withEthics,ofwhichitisonlyacorollary. Therelativeworthof beings arises from the degree of their participation in the Infinite ; hence man, whose mind is allied with an infinite ideality, has an infi niteworth. Itisthroughthisunion,notthroughthemoralautonomy ofthewill,asKantmaintained,thatmanisapersonandnotathing; and it is for this reason that actions, to be morally good, must have for theirobjectanintelligentbeing. Moralcategoriesarethereforefounded on the gradations of intelligence and virtue, which is but the realiza tionofintelligence. Thedutiestowardsourselvesarederivedfrom the Imperative, which commands the respect and love of humanity, and we are the standard, by which we estimate the faculties and the wantsofourneighbors. Rightsarefoundinthefacultyofacting accordingtoourwill,sofarasprotectedbymorallaw. Manhasan inalienable right to truth, virtue, and happiness, and his right to liberty andpropertyisfoundedonhisverypersonality. Domesticsocietyis the basis of all civil organization, and the authority of the State is limited to the regulation of the modality of right, and never can place itselfagainstrightsgivenbynature. Indeeditsprincipalobjectis the protection of those rights. Liberal in almost all his doctrines, RuQtnini's ideas on the rights of the Church betray a confusion of Catholicism with Christianity, indeed with humanity ; they are there foreextravagantastheyareindefensible. ItistruethatinhisLe CinquePlayheildla C/tiesa,1848,hestrovetointroduceintotheChurch such reforms, as would have made it less antagonistic to the spiritof Christianity. Inthatworkheurgedthenecessityofabolishingthe use of a dead language in the religious services, of raising the standard of clerical education, of emancipating the Episcopate from political ambitions and feudal pretensions, and, above all, of intrusting the elec tion of bishops to the people and the clergy, as is required by the verynatureoftheChurch. HisbookwasplacedatonceintheIndex Expnrgatorius. llosminiappliedalsohisphilosophytopoliticsinhis filosojiu detta Politica, 1839; and to pedagogic science in his Prin ciple Supremo deUa Metodologia, 1857. He is also the author of E*ponizion<e Critica della Filosojia di Aristatele, 1858, V. Giobcrti e il Panteismo, 1848, Opuscoli Filosofid, 1828, and of several vol umes of correspondence. AcompleteeditionofRosmlni'sworksbosbeenpublishedinMilanandinTurin. His posthumous work* are now in course of publication in Turin, under the editorship of hi*    496 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. disciple.F.Paoli. ARJsumiofhissystem,writtenbyhimself,maybefoundinthe Storin universale di O. C'antil, in its documentary part. His philosophy was early introduced into the Universities and Colleges of Piedmont, through the labors of G. Sciolla, P. Corte. and M. Tarditi, then the chief professors in the philosophical faculty attheUniversityofTurin. ThetwofirstembodiedthedoctrinesofKosminiintheir text-books of mental and moral philosophy ; while the third, in his Lettere di un Ros- mirtiaiio, 1841, undertook to refute the objections which Gioberti had advanced against thatphilosophy. Itwasthiswork,whichgaveGiobertioccasiontopublishhis voluminous work on Rosmini. Meanwhile his doctrines extended to the schools of Lombardy. owing to the writings of A. Pestalozza. whose Element! di KUo-nyfiii, 1847,containthebestexpositionofRosminianism. Pestalozzaisalsotheauthorof DifesadelleDottrinediRosmini,1853,andLuMeniediRosmini,1855. Tothesame School belong A. Manzoni, the author of the Promcssi Sposi, who, in his Dinlogo »>j2T /»- venzwne, applied the Rosminian principles to the art of composition ; N. Tommaseo, the author of the Dizionario Estetico, the Dizionario dei Sinonimi. and of several educational works, in his Espoxizione del Sistema Filosofico di Rosmini. 1838; A. Rosmini. 1855; StudiJUosofici, 1840; and Studi eritiei; G. Cavour. the brother of the statesman of that name, in his Fragment* Phitosopluquts, 1841 ; R. Bonghi, trans lator of several works of Plato and Aristotle, and author of Compendio di Logica, 1SGO, who gives an exposition of philosophical discussions held with Rosmini in his Le Sre- siane, 1854 ; G. A. Rayneri, in his Primi Principii di Metodica, 1854 ; and DeUa Pedn- gogia, 1851) ; D. Berti, the author of L a Vita di O. Bruno, 1868 ; V. Garelli, in his SuUaFiimofiaMorale,1852;andinRiograjiadiA.Rosmini,1861;V.Villa,inhisKant e Rosmini, 1809; J. B. Peyretti, in his Ekmenti di FUosofui, 1857 ;and Saggiodi Logiea generate, 1859 ; B. Monti, in his Del Fondamento, Progresso, e Sistema delle Conoteeme Umnne,1841;V.Imbriani,inhisSulFattstodiGoethe,1865;and/Mr Organism)poeticio e delta Poetica popolare ItaUana, 1806 ; M. Minghetti, the statesman and colleague of Cavour, whose work, DeW Economia Publica, bears the traces of the influence of Ros- mini's doctrines ; G. Allievo, in his Jlegdinnismo, la Scienza e hi Vita, 1868 ; and P. Paganini, in his Bella Natura deUe Idee secondo Platone, 1863 ; Considerazumi suUe pro- fonde armonie detla FUosqfla Nnttirale, 1801; tkiggio Cosmologleo sullo fypazin. 1862 : and StiggiosopraS.TommasoeilRosmini,1857. Tothisclassificationmaybereferred Les Principes de Philosophic, of T. Caluso. published in 1815, translated into Italian by P.Corte,andpublishedin1840withnotesofRosmini. Prof.Corteistheauthorof EkmentidiFilosqfla,1853,embracinglogical,metaphysical,andethicalsciences. He published also Anthologia ex M. T. Cicerone and L. A. Seneca in usum Philiw/phi-r Studiosorumconcinnaia,1851. ThedoctrineofRosminionthenatureoforiginalsin, as it was expressed in his Trattato delta C'oscienza, having been violently attacked by severalecclesiasticalwritersbelongingtotheOrderoftheJesuits,itwasablydefended by eminent theologians of the Catholic Church, P. Bertolozzi, G. Fantozzi, G. B. Pagani. and by L. Gastaldi, a collegiate doctor of divinity in the University of Turin, and now Archbishop of that See. On Rosmini's System, see further.— Leydel, in Zeitschrift f. Philosophic, 1851, 1859 ; Annate* de Philos. Chretien-He (Bonnetty, ed. Paris), on Rosmini and the decree of the Index, July, 1800 : also same Annaks, 3d series, tomes X., XVIII., XX. ; 4th series, I., p. 71 ; Bartholmcss, Hist, critique des Doctrines ReUgieuses, 2 vols., Paris, 1855 ; Father Lockhard, Life of Rosmini, Lond, 1856 ; Ferri, op. cit., and G. Ferrari in the Recue des Deux Monde*, March and May, 1844.    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 497 4. Ontologism.—The OntologicSchool placesthe "Primum philo- Bophicum " not in simple ideal existence, but in Absolute reality, the causeofallthingsaswellastheprincipleofallknowledge. This doctrine, held by St. Augustine and St. Bonaventura, and revived by Malebranche in the seventeenth century, was developed under a new form by Vincenzo Gioberti (1801-1852). He was born in Turin, received his education at the University of that city, and earlybecameapriest. Arrestedasasympathizerwiththerevolu tionary schemes of Mazzini, he was condemned to exile in 1833. "While in France and Belgium he devoted himself to the work of Italian regeneration, and endeavored to attach the clergy to this cause. In his Primato Morale e Civile degli Italiani, 1843, he urged upon the papacy the necessity of placing itself at the head of the liberal movement, and becoming the champion of Italian nationality and the centre of European civilization. In his ProUgomeni, 1845, and 11 Oesulta Moderno, 1840, he labored to crush the opposition with which his views were received by the reactionary party of the Church, and exposedthedangersofitspolicy. WiththeaccessionofPiusIX.in 1.S47, and the subsequent establishment of constitutional governments inthePeninsula,hisideasseemedtohavetriumphed. In1848he returned to Italy and entered at once into public life, accepting a seat in the Parliament and in the Cabinet of Piedmont, where he soon be camearulingspirit. AfterthebattleofNovara,in1849,hewassent to Paris as ambassador, in the hope of obtaining aid for the national cause. Unabletoaccomplishhismission,heresignedhisoffice,and remaining in that city a voluntary exile, he again devoted himself to philosophical studies. The philosophy of Gioberti is embodied in the following works : L a Teoria del Sqpranaturafe, 1838 ; Introduzione alio Studio della Filosojia, 1840 ; Trattato del JSuono, 1842 ; Trattato del Bello, 1841;ErroriFilosoficidiA.liosmini,1841-44. Philosophy,accord ing to him, has long since ceased to exist; the last genuine philo sophers were Leibnitz, Malebranche, and Vico. By substituting psy chologic for the ontologic method and principles, Descartes rendered all genuine philosophic development impossible ; he did in regard to philosophy what Luther did in regard to religion, by substituting pri vatejudgmentfortheauthorityoftheChurch. Sensualism,subjectiv ism, scepticism, materialism and atheism are the legitimate fruitsof the doctrineofDescartes. Todoawaywiththeseerrorsistheobjectof    498 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. truephilosophy. Rosmini'stheorycannotattainit;foritisfounded on a psychologic process, assumes as a principle of knowledge a pure abstraction, and thus falls into the very errors which it proposes to combat. Throughidealitythemindcannotreachreality,norfromthe fact of consciousness can it ascend to universal and necessary ideas. We mustthereforeinverttheprocess,andlookbothformethodand principlesnotinthesubject,butintheobject. Theobjectistheidea in its absolute reality, innnanently present to the mind under the form of a synthetic judgment, which comprehends in itself all being and knowledge. This judgment, as it is produced through reflection, finds its expres sion in the ideal formula En* creat existentias (Being create* exist ences:)— thesupremeprincipleofOntologyandofPhilosophy. Through the intuition of this principle, mind is in possession at once of the real and the ideal ; for the first member of the formula (En-s) contains the object, Being, the absolute idea as well as the absolute substance and cause ; the second (Existences) gives the organic multiplicity of contin gent substances and causes and relative ideas; the third (The Creative Act) expresses the relation existing between the absolute and the rela tive, the unconditional and the conditional, and the production of real andidealexistencesfromtheAbsolute. Butalthoughthisintuition gives the power of intelligence to the mind, it isin itself not yet an act ofknowledge;aslongasitisnotreproducedbythemind,itremains inalatentorgerminalcondition. Itisonlybyareflexjudgmentthat w e a f f i r m t h e c o n t e n t s o f i n t u i t i o n ; c o m i n g t o t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f its elements, we become acquainted with their mutual bearing and rela tions. Thisreproductionthereforeismadethroughontok>gi«ilreflec tion, by which the mind, so to say, reflects itself upon the object, .and throughwhichaloneitiscapableofacquiringtheknowledge of that idealorganism,whichisexpressedintheintuition. Thustheontologi- cal method is the only true philosophical process, and stands in opposi tion to the psychological method, which is founded on psychological reflection, through which the mind turns its attention, not upon the object,butuponitself. Buttodirectitsreflectionupontheobjectof its intuition, die mind needs the stimulus of language, through which itmaydetermineandlimittheobjectforitscomprehension. Hence the necessity of a firet divine revelation, which by language supplies the instrument of our reflection, and constitutes that relation which necessarily exists between the idea itself, and the idea as it manifests    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 499 itselftoonrmind. Foralthoughtheideainitselfisoneandindivisi ble,inreferencetothehumanmindithastwosides—theonewhichis intelligible,theotherincomprehensible— thusbeingantithetictowards each other, and giving rise to all the apparent antinomies between Science and Religion. The faculty of superintelligence, which is inherent in all finite minds, consists in the sense which reveals to the minditsownlimitations,astothecomprehensionoftheidea. Itis through revelation that the mind acquires some positive knowledge of the superintelligibility of the idea, although always limited and cloud ed in mystery. Science, being the reproduction of the ideal formula, must therefore be divided into two branches, corresponding to the intelligibility and the superintelligibility of the idea ;— the one constituting the Rational Sciences, the other the Super-rational, the last being superior to the former from their more extensive comprehension of the idea through positiverevelation. Thegenesisofsciencesfromtheidealformulais as follows : " Jfiia" or the subject of the formula, gives Ontology and Theology. The copula (Great) demands a science which shall com prise the double relation between Ens and Existences, in both an ascending and a descending method ; the descending process (from Jieuifj to faiatenees} originates the science of time and space, or Mathe matics ; the ascending (from Existences to Being] the science of the tme, the good, and the beautiful, that is, Logic, Ethics, and ^Esthetics. The predicate (Existences) gives rise to the spiritual and material sciences ; on the one side Psychology and Cosmology, on the other, physicalScienceinitsvariousbranches. Thesuper-naturalsciences follow the same division. As to the validity of the knowledge arising from this formula,—its first member expresses its own absolute reality and necessity. The intuitive judgment in which this reality and necessity are pronounced, viz.. '"En* *'•*," and ^Ens is necessary" do not originate in the human mind, but are contained in the idea itself, while the mind in its primi tive intuition only listens to them— repeating them in itssucceeding reflex judgments. So that the validity of those judgments is not affectedbythesubjectivityofthemind. Thusisitwiththefunda mental ideas of necessity, possibility, and existence ; the first being die relation of the En# to itself, the second the relation of the necessary to the existing, and the third the relation of possibility to necessity. Totheseideascorrespondthreegreatrealities;tothefirst,    500 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. the Absolute reality, G o d ; to the second, infinite or continuous m a g n i tude, pure time and pure space ; to the third, actual and discrete m a g nitude,theuniverseanditscontents. Timeandspaceareideas,at once pure and empirical, necessary and contingent. As pure and necessary, they may be conceived as a circular expansion growing out of a single centre and extending to the infinite; by this centre, En* (Being)issymbolized. Ascontingentandempirical,theymayberepre sented by a circumference which projects from the centre and develops in successive degrees; in this project!ve development we have the finite reality, multiple and contingent in itself, but one and necessary, if considered as existing in the central point from which it emerges. ForexistenceshaveanecessaryrelationtotheEm,anditisonlyin that relation that it is possible to know them. The very word ex istences implies their derivation from the Absolute reality ; but the nature of that derivation cannot be reached through reasoning ; it manifests itself in the intuition, in which it is revealed in the creative act. Byconsideringthetwoextremetermsoftheformulaoutofthe relation of its copula, they become identified, and philosophy at once fallsintoPantheism. Thusthecreativeactistheonlybasisofoar knowledgeofcontingentexistences. Itisbybringingthephenome nal elements of perception into their relations to creative activity that the sensible becomes intelligible, and the iudividualizatioiis of the idea arebroughtintheconcreteintoourminds. Andasourownideasare formed in witnessing the creative act, it follows that that they m a y be considered as copies of the divine idea, created and limited, yet stamp ed with the character of a divine origin. Thus the ideal formula considered in relation to the universe becomes transformedintotheseotherformulas: "theonecreatesthemultiple," and " the multiple returns to the one,"— which express the two evcles of creative development, viz., the one, by virtue of which Existences descendfromEns,theother,bywhichtheyreturntoit,— adoublemove nient, which is accomplished in the very bosom of the Ens itself, at once theefficientandthefinalcauseoftheuniverse. Thefirstcycle,how ever, isentirely divine, while the second isdivine and human, because in ithumanpowersarebroughtintoplay. IntheGardenofEdenther&- tiini of the mind to itsCreator was perfect ; reason predominant over passion, man's reflection was in perfect accord with the organic intui tion;buttheFallalteredthatorder,andman puthimselfmoreorless intooppositionwiththeformula. Ileucetheerrorsofancient'    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 501 gonies and Mythologies, and their Pantheistic and Uualistic Philoso phies. ThustheBralnuinicandBuddhisticdoctrinesoftheEastab sorbed the universe and man himself in the firstmember of the formula; while the philosophical systems of the Greeks reduced everything; to the third member, with the exception of Pythagorean ism and Platonism, in which the condition of its organic order was substantially preserved. Christianity restored that order through the miraculous intervention by which God, becoming man, brought the human race back to its primitivecondition. Insuchadispensation,thetraditionwhichcon tains the organic structure of the fomula was placed in the keeping of the Church ;hence itsinfallibility, and itsright topreside over Theo logy, as well as the whole development of Science. The idea as expressed in the formula becomes, in its application to thewill,thesuprememorallaw,thebasisofEthics. Whileitsfirst and second terms give us the idea of moral good, its first cause, law and obligation, the third term supplies the moral agent, and contains theconditionsofmoraldevelopment. Itisthroughhisfree-willthat man cancopythecreativeactbyplacinghimselfinaccordwiththe willofGod,asmanifestedinmorallaw. Hence,morallawpartakes of the character of absolute reality; it is objective, apodictic, and religious, because it is founded on the very relation of God to the human will. From this relation arises an absolute right in the Creator, to which an absolute duty in man corresponds, the source of all the relative duties and rights, which spring from his relation to his fellow- creatures. Itisthroughthisaccordofthehumanwiththedivinewill, that man attains happiness, consisting in the voluntary union of his intellectualnaturewiththedivine. ThesupremeformulaofEthics is this: "Being creates moral good through the free-will of man;" from this two others follow, corresponding with the two cycles of creation: "Free-will produces virtue by the sacrifice of passion to law," and, " Virtue produces happiness by the reconciliation of passion to law." /Esthetic science likewise finds its principles in the ideal formula. Creation, with the ideas of time, space, and force, gives us the idea of the sublime, while Exigences, that is to say. the real in its relation to theidea,containtheelementsofthebeautiful. Thus,asexistences are produced arid contained in the creative act, so the sublime creates andcontainsthebeautiful. Hencetheformula,"Beingcreatesthe BeautifulthroughtheSublime." Thetwoideasarecorrelated;they    502 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. both consist in the union of the intelligible with an imaginative ele ment, but while in the sublime one element predominates over the other,inthebeautifultheharmonyofthetwoispreserved. Vet the two ideas are subject to the cycles already noticed in the development oftheformula: "The SublimecreatestheBeautiful," and "theUeauti- fulreturnstotheSublime." Inthehistoryofartthesublimeprecedes the beautiful; the temple and the epic poem are the oldest forms of art. Thesuperintelligibilityoftheideagivesrisetothemarvellons, which, expressing itself in language, poetry, painting, and music, becomesanelementof./Esthetics. Thefirstartsrestingontheorganic structure of formula, it follows that only in orthodoxy can the full realization of beauty be found ; heterodoxy, altering more or less that structure, introduces an intrinsic disorder into the lield of .^Esthetics, as well as into that of science, morality, and religion. Gioberti at the time of his death was preparing other works, in whichhisideasseemtohaveundergoneconsiderablechange. Imper fect and fragmentary as they were left, they were published in 1S56- 57 under the editorship of his friend G. Massari, and bear the follow ing titles: La Protologla; La, Filosofia dtlla Rivelazione; La Itifor-ma detta Chiesa. A tendency to rationalism blended with Hege lian transcendentalism appears in those works, although ostensibly foundedontheidealformulaofthen'rstphilosophy. Theideahere becomes the absolute thought, which creates by its very act of think ing; sensibility is thought undeveloped, as reason is thought deve loped; and even the incomprehensible is but thought undeveloped, whichbecomesintelligiblethroughdevelopment. Languageasthe instrument of reflexion plays still a conspicuous part in the woof of the absolute thought, as wrought out in creation, but it has become a natural product: and even of supernatural revelation itissaid, that it maybeconsiderednatural,assoonasitisreceivedintothemind. Itis through the creative act that absolute thought appears in the develuji- ment of Nature and Mind, a development which proceeds under the logical form of a Sorites, the principle of which is inexhaustible, theprogresscontinuous. ThemembersofthisSoritesareprop»>-r which rest on Categories, or fundamental ideas produced by the ;. lute thought in its union with the mind, and the tinners which it creates. IntheAbsolute,theCategoriesareoneandin<! idea, but become, multiple through the creative act. These are < and trine; the first express the oppos   I   ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 503 whilethelastreconciletheoppositionsoftheformer. Theabsolute thought is the concrete and supreme Category, out of which all others receive existence through its creative activity; an existence which is developed,accordingtoadialecticmovement. Theorganicstructure of the Categories, which embraces the relations between the terms of ejich dual one, and the relations between their couples, is moulded on theidealformula. Pantheismdoesnotconsist,inasubstantialsyn thesis of G o d and the universe, but in the confusion of the finite and the infinite, and of the different modes of existence which belong to them. God isinfinite,bothactuallyandpotentially;theworldispotentially infinite, but actually finite. With Nicolas of Cusa and Giordano liningitmay properlybesaid,thattheuniverseis"apotentialGod" or"alimitedorcontractedGod." Hence,Godandtheuniverseare one in the infinite reality of the first,and in the infinite potentiality of thesecond;forthepotentialityoftheuniverseexistsinGod. Asto its finitude, it is given as a term of the creative act; it is a primitive fact which is presupposed by all mental acts, which therefore cannot be reduced to other Categories and thus to the unity of the Absolute. Finite realities, however, have a double relation to the Absolute, which is determined by the metexis and the mimesis; through the former they are phenomenal copies of the divine ideas, and through the latter they participate in the divine essence, the condition of their existence. The change in Gioberti's metaphysical ideas manifests itself in his thoughtsinrelationtotheChurch. Catholicphilosophyrestsnolonger on the authority of an ecclesiastical organization, but on the universal ity and continuity of human thought, in the history of mental evolu tion. Religionisnolongersuperiortophilosophy;butitisphilo sophy itself, enveloped in myths and symbols, so as to bring it to the intelligenceofthecommonpeople. Allreligionsarceffectsofthe creativeact,having different degrees of moral value. Christianity, however, is the complement of all religious forms, and Christ is the Han-Idea, in which the realization of the moral type fully corresponds itsinnerexcellence. Mysteries:ui<lmiraclesarefacts,whichcannot considered as complete ; their value consists in their relation to the ;i!»phenomenawhichcontaintin;doctrinesofPalingenesis. No can live which dm-s nut fallow the laws of ideal development; •i i v e r s e w o u l d p e r i s h , t h e m o m e n t it s h o u l d c e a s e t o b e s u b - change. Themodification*introducedinhispoliticaldoctrine,     ** 504 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. he himself published a year before his death, in his Rinnocamento Civile(VItalia,1851,wherethepapacynolongerappearsasthenatural supportofItalianregeneration,butasitsgreatestobstacle. InLois work, by far the best of all his voluminous productions, he gave a new programme to Italian patriots; placing the national cause under the hegemony of the king of Piedmont, he urged his country men to rally around that throne, the only hope of the Peninsula. This programme, carried out to the letter, has brought the Italian States under one national government, and finally made Rome the capitalofthenation. Nostatesman,withtheexceptionofCavour,has ever exerted for a time so great influence on the affairs of Italy as Gioberti ; his name is preserved in honor among his countrymen for the purity of his patriotism, the loftiness of his aspirations, and the liberality of his views, rather than for the solidity and the permanent valueofhisphilosophy. OnthepoliticalrelationsofGiobertito Cavour, cf. Life, Character, and Policy of Count Cavour, by V. Botta,New York,1862. As a philosopher, Gioberti did not succeed in forming a large School, although the following writers doubtless derived their inspirations from his works :— Vito Fomari. Dell' Armonia Universale, 1850; Lezioni suW arte della parata, 1857-62; G. Eomano, aJesuit,LaScknzadelTuomointerno«ituoirapporticollaNaturaeconDio,1840-45; Elementi di Filosofi"-; V. Di Gioanni, Principii detta Filosofia Prima, 1863; Micrti, o dei- VEiaereUnoeReale,1864; Miceliol'ApologiadelSistema,1865; N.Garzilli,Saggioatti rn]ypor(idella Formula idealeeoiproblemi importantidella'Filosofia,1850; B. De Ac quisto,SistemadellaScienzauniversale,1850;ElementidiFilosofiafondamentale. 1836; Corso di Filosofia morale, 1851 ; Corso di Diritto naturale, 1852 ; Necessità dtW autorità e della legge, 1856; Saggio sulla- naturae sulla genesi del Diritto di proprietà, 1858; Trattato(fIdeologia,1858. IntheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Giobertifoundade voted interpreter in Dr. O. A. Brownson, whose able exposition of the doctrine con tained in the ideal formula was published in 1804, in the Review bearing his name. To the Ontological School, although independent of Gioberti, belong G. JL Bertóni, Ideediuna Filosofiadella Vita,1850;QuestioneReligiosa,1801;and La Filosofia Greca prima di Socrate, 1809 ; S. Centofanti, Delia Filosofia detta Storia ; A. Conti, Storia dettiFilosofia,1804;Evidenza,AmoreeFede,1802;Dioeilmale,1865;J.Puecinotti, Serilti Storici e Filosofici, 1864; Storia della Medicina ; M. Baldacchini, Trattato sullo Scetticismo; La Filosofia dopo Kant ; I. Corleo, Filosofia vnirermle, 1863; A. Mangeri. Corso di Filosofia e Sistema Pitico-Ontologico, 1866; B. Labranca, Lezioni di Filosofia razionale, 1868; Mora and Lavarino, in their Enciclopedia Scientifica, 1850; S. Turbiglio, L'impero della Logica, 1870; and Analisi Storica delle FUo-vfie di Ix-rte e Leibnizio, 1807. On Gioberti, cf. h. Ferri, and R Mariano, op. cit.; Seydel in Zeit- schrift fi Pftilosophie, 1850 and 1859; C. B. Smyth, Christian Metapliysiciant, Lond., 185JL Prominent among the Ontologists is Terenzio Mamiani ; a poet,    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 505 statesman,andphilosopher. HewasbominPesaro,1799;in1S31 lie joined the revolutionary movement of the Romagnas, but was ar restedandcondemnedtoexile. HetookuphisresidenceinParis, where for fifteen years he was engaged in literary and philosophical pursuits. In1846hereturnedtoItaly,andgavehissupporttothe liberalreformsinauguratedbyPiusIX. WhenthePopeabandoned Rome, Mamiani, as a member of the Constituent Assembly, opposed the proclamation of the Republic, as contrary to the interest of the nationalcause. Withtherestorationofthepapalpowerbytheaidof Franc-e in 1849, he retired to Piedmont, where he was elected member of Parliament and appointed professor of philosophy in the Univer sityofTurin. Hewasastanchsupporterofthepolicyofflavour, under whose administration he held successively the offices of minister ofPublicInstructionandthatofministertoGreece. Atpresenthe is member of the Senate and professor of the philosophy of history in the University of Rome. In the early part of his philosophical career, represented by his Del RintwvameiUsi dtW antica Filusojw, Ital'uina, 1834, Mamiaui held the doctrine of Empiricism founded on psychological investiga tions,inwhichhestrovetocombineexperiencewithreason. liemain tained that the principal question of philosophy was that of method ;and thatthiscouldonlybefoundinexperienceandnature. Itwasthisme thod which prevailed among the philosophers of the Renaissance, and to which science is indebted for its great achievements, particularly throughtheteachingsandtheexampleofGalileo. Thispublication called forth the work of Rosmini, II Itinnovamento, etc., in which he controverted some of Mamiani's statements, and tried to show that the experimental method alone could not philosophically reconstruct the scienceofNatureandMind. Mamianihimselfsoonbecameconvinced of this, and in his works D'ntcorso sulf Ontologia e sul Mt-todv, 1*41, and Dialoghi di Sciema 1'riina, 1846, he endeavored to find a philosophi calbasisincommonsense. Inthesewritingsappearsforthefirsttime his doctrine on immediate perception, as the only foundation of the knowledgeofreality. Thelastphaseofhisdoctrineiscontainedin hisworkConfession!dinnMchijixico,1865. Itisdividedintotwo parts.OntologyandCosmology. InthefirstheconsiderstheAbsolute, ideas, natural theology, and the creative act ; in the second, the finite, its relation to the Infinite, the co-ordinatiou of nature's means, life, finality, and progress in the universe. ^    506 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. His fundamental doctrinesareasfollows:Theknowledgeof the real and the ideal is effected through two faculties essentially distinct, although both acting in the subjective unity of the mind— perception andintellection. Thefirstdoesnotconsistinasyntheticjudgment d j)rto/-i, as Rosmini and Gioberti held after Kant, but in a direct and immediate relation of the mind to finite realities, as Reid and Galuppi maintained, although they overlooked its intellectual charac ter. Intellectionconsistsintherelationofthemindtoideas;and,as these have an essentialconnection with Absolute reality,the mind may besaidtopossessanintrinsicrelationtothe"Eliterealissinw"— the mostrealbeing. IdeasindeedareintellectualsymbolsoftheAbsolute reality in its relation of causality ; and they are supplied by the intellective faculty, when the mind apprehends their realizations throughperception. TimsourintelligenceattainstoAbsolutereality through the intermedium of ideal representations, but it does uot penetratesofarastoreachitsessence;itremainsonitssurface. A similar process occurs in perception, through which the mind reaches the object given in sensibility, not in essence, but through the medium ofsensation. Butwhileourideasaremererepresentativeemblems, in the divine mind they are real objects in themselves ; they are identical with the absolute intelligibility, the possibility, the reason of all things; they are therefore the foundation of all Unite realities, their common attributes and final perfection ; they are indeed the efficient and final causes of the world, manifesting themselves under thetriplerelationofthetrue,thegood,andthebeautiful. Henceoar ideas, as representations and determinations of the divine causality, are essentially objective and immutable representations, and deter minationsofeternaltruth. ItfollowsthattheexistenceofGodis founded on the very nature of primitive intuition, which includes the eternal substantiality of truth, and that its demonstration d priori is a simple process of deduction from the principle of identity. It follows also that every ideal relation contains an eternal truth, to which an intelligible reality in G o d corresponds; it is therefore independent ofthehumanmind. Ideashoweverarenotinnate;thryoriginate in finite reality, from which they receive their determinations, and have a necessary reference to Absolute reality through their represen tativecharacter. Itisonlythroughreflectionthattheminddisc. in itself its relation both to finite reality, contained in internal and external perception, and to Infinite reality, contained in the i'!     ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 507 Creation is the result of the infinite good, which of necessity tends to communicate itself: the idea of a God infinitely g<x<d im plies the idea of a creation, founded on the greatest good, as its out ward manifestation and ultimate end. This manifestation isbrought forth by an infinite power, and an infinite wisdom, under the formsofthelawsofcausalityandfinality. Fromtheverynatureof the finite, and its opposition to the infinite, arises the immense cosmic diversity. Hence the universe cannot be properly represented as a sphere ; it is rather to be regarded as a system of numberless spheres, moving concentrically in various directions, and forming that univer salharmonv,whichisthehighestexpressionoftheinfinitegood. As the cosmic diversity is equal to its possibility, it follows that there is only one idea of the universe in the divine mind as well as in the universe itself, although in a continuous generation and development. The idea of a better world is impossible ; because the idea of the uni verse,which isintheactofdeveloping,containsalreadyallpossibilities. E v i l is i n h e r e n t i n t h e f i n i t e ; b u t it d i m i n i s h e s , a s t h e f i n i t e m o r e a n d m o r e approaches the infinite, and in this progressive union of the one with the otherliestheultimateendofcreation. Intheachievementofthisend, the divine causality creates and determines the whole, the divine intelli gence prearranges the whole, while nature produces the whole under the influenceofthatcausalityandintelligence. Thefiniteisanaggregate of monads or forces, which are brought together by their mutual at traction ; thus a communication arises between those, which have a diameter of similarity, a participation between the diverse ones, and a co-ordination of all. Hence arises the Cosmic System, with its great divisions of na ture,life,andmind. Naturerevealsitselffirstinthestellarorder, in the ether in connection with light, heat, and electricity, and in thoorderofchemicalcompounds. Intheelaborationofthesyn theses preparatory to the final ones, the Divine Art is revealed in that wise co-ordination of means which is produced by the union and separation, the action and reaction of homogeneous, as well as hetero- genons forces. But it is only in life that finality appears, for life alone contains the possibility of receiving the communication of JJIXK], whichistheessenceandtheobjectofcreation. Lifeisthedevelop ment through a suitable organization of the individual, in reference to itsparticipationinthegood. Atitslowestdegreeitisnothingbuta chemical compound, enclosed in a cellular envelope and capable of    508 TALIAN PHILOSOPHY. reproducing itself ; at its highest point it is an intellectual and vott tional activity which teiids to an absolute object, and to this end co-or dinatesallthemeansatitsdisposal. Betweenthetwoextremesthere are numberless degrees of activity, each developing in accordance with itsownend. Vegetation,animality,andspiritualitymarktheprinci pal degrees in the scale of life. . In these three manifestations life is a specificforce. BflchnerandotherScientists,whogivetomatterthe power of producing life, deny the existence of this specific force, and attribute it to a cause, which in itself has not the elements necessary to itsdevelopment. SoDarwin'stheoryofthegenesisofspeciesinvolves the negation of the objective reality of the idea or specific essence, containing a substantial fixedness of character and form, and the power of producing itself within the limits of its own nature. It confounds accidental varieties with substantial transformations,mid artificialmeanswithnaturalprocesses. Itiscontrarytoallhistorical experience, and the constant fact of the sterility of hybrids; it stands in contradiction with itself in the bearing of the two laws of the strug gle for life, and natural selection, which will restrict rather than widen the limits of development, and keep the species within their own boundaries, rather than expand them into new forms and modes of existence. The order of life in relation to the general end of creation begins with plants ; here the living force has the specific value of being the organ for animal life, or rather it is the laboratory in which its elements are prepared ; it passes over into animality, which has a real relation of "finality," although limited and relative, as are its senses and instincts, through which it enjoys particijwition in the divine good. Man alone, whose life is partly the growth of vegetation and animality, is an absolute finality, for he alone has a life,through which he can know and act in accordance with the Absolute. The law of indefinite progress is universal and necessary, founded as it is in the very object of creation, in the divine goodness, and the progressive union of the finite with the infinite. Thislaw,whichembracesalltheuniverse,isstillmoreappa rentinthedevelopmentofmankind. Butinorderthatitmaybe verified in history, its application must comprehend humanity as an organic and spiritual unit ; it would fail if applied to isolated nations, ormeasuredbyaninvariabletype,as.Vicoinsisted. Toseethefull bearing of this law, mankind must be regarded in the multitude of ite    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 509 nationalities, in the variety of their character, in the multiplicity of the elements and of the ages of civilization. The law itself must he viewed initsdifferentaspects,andintheagencieswhichareatworktocarryit ont in history ; such as the influence of national aristocracies, the sub ordination of lower to higher forms of civilization, the mingling of races, and the expansion of social forces, through which a kind of pola rityamongnationsiscreated. Alltheseandothercauses,whilethey preserve the spiritual unity of mankind, maintain its growth and Becure itsgeneral advancement. Besides the works already mentioned, Mamiani wrote also Meditazi- oniCarte&iane,1868,andDi unNuovoDirittoEurope<j,1859,inwhich hestrovetoestablishinternationalrightonaphilosophicalbasis. In his Iiinaacimento Cattolico, 1862, he contemplated the possibility of a reform in the Catholic Church, that should reconcile itwith the spirit of modern times. He is also the author of Teoria dclla Religions e dello Stato, e dei suoi raj/porti sj>eciali con R o m a e colle Nazioni Cattoliche, 1868 ; Sei Lettere a Rosmini, 1838 ; Saggi di Filosofia Civile, 1865 ; Saggi Politici, 1853. Among the writers who have treated of Mamiani's philosophy, the more prominent are Luigi Ferri, the author of the Esmi sar CHUtoire de la Philosophic en Ilalie au 19ine Steele, 1809 ; Marc Debrit, Histoire de» Doctrine* Philosophiqves daiu Vltalie Con- temporaine, 1809. (These two writers, particularly the first, give a complete survey of the principal systems of contemporary philosDphy in Italy.) See also F. Lavarino, La Logica e la FUosofia del Conte T. Mamiani, 1870 ; F. Fiorentino. Beveral articles in the Rivuita di Bologna, 1807, under the title of PosititUmo e Platonismo in. It<Ui>i ; Brentazzoli, the author of Di uri1 ultcriore e deflnitico arplicamento ddla FUomfia Seokxttka, 1801 ; Tagliaferri, who wrote on Mamiani's theory, 1807; and F. Bona- t.-Hi. who discussed the ontological argument of the existence of God as presented by MamianiinBonateUiandMamiani,1807. BonatelliisalsotheauthorofLaCoxcienza, 1872, and of a sketch of Italian philosophy since 1815, published in the Zeituchrift fiir Phihwrphie und Philosophische Kritik, Halle, 1809. To the Ontologic classification mayalsobereducedtheDialoghiPolitico-FilosqficidiO.Buscarini 1870;andSoprala FiionofadelDirittoPublicoInternodiL.C.diMontagnini,1870;also,1stFUomfiadette Scuote Italiane, a philosophical Review supported by Mamiani, D. Berti, R. Bonghi, G. Barzellotti, and other members of an association recently established in Rome for the promotion of philosophical studies ; 11 Oerdil, a weekly periodical published in Turin, under the editorship of Prof. Allievo, chiefly intended to reconcile philosophy with Christianity;and 11 Campo dH FUosoflItaUani,a philosophicalperiodical pub lished in Naples, and edited by Prof. Milone. 5. Absolute Idealism or TIeoelianism.— Augusto Vera is the recognized head of the Hegelian School in Italy. He was born in Amelia, a city of Umbria, in 1817, and early went to Paris, where he completed his education. Having spent some years in    ^ RIO ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. Switzerland, as professor of Greek and Latin literature, he returned to Paris, and was appointed professor of philosophy in several CollegesconnectedwiththeUniversityofFrance. In1SC0hereturned to Italy, where he was at once made professor of philosophy in the RoyalAcademyofMilan. In1861hewastransferredtotheLniversity of Naples, where he still holds the professorship of the history of phi losophyandthephilosophyofhistory. Hisworksaredev<>tedtothe interpretation and application of the Hegelian pliilosophy, and are almostallwritteninFrench. Theyareasfollows:— ProW.me dela Certitude ; VHcgiUanisme et la Philosophit. 1801 ; Melanges Philono- phiques, 1862; Essais de Philosophic Hegelienr.e, 1804; Introduction a la Philasrqkfc cCHegel, 1853, 2d ed., 1864; Logique d Hegel ; Philo»,plue de la Nature d'Hegel ; Phi losophic de CEsprit (VHegel; Philosophic de la Heligion <THegel; Platonis Aristattiu el Hegelii de medio termino Doctrina ; Inquiry into Speculative and Experimental .Se»>v««. Lond . 1856, Lezioni suUa Filosofia delta Storia ; PrUusiovi aUa Storia d<Ba Filotnfia (epoca Socratioa), ed alia Filosofia delta -Storia ; II Problema deff Avm-'iito; II Cataitr e la libera Chiesa in Ubero Statot in which the doctrine of the separation of the Church fromtheStateheldbyCavourisopposedonphilosophicalandpoliticalgrounds. He also translated into English the History of Heligion and ofthe Christian Church by Bretschneider,London. InhisworksVeranotonlyinterpretsandexpounds.Hegel's philosophy, but develops it and expresses it in a more intelligible form, thus rendering itaccessibletostudentsnotfamiliarwithHegelianterminology. InhisIntroduction dlaPhilosophica"HegelherejectstheTrinityofbeing,thought,andmotionwhichTren delenburgproposedtosubstitutetotheHegelianTrinityofbeing,notbeingandbecom ing ; he also confutes French Eclecticism and the materialistic theories of Bilchner and Moleschott. In his Inquiry into Spcndatice and Experimental .Sr««c« be refutes the doctrines of Bacon, Locke, and other representatives of Empiricism. His labors have been highly praised by eminent German ^Hegelians, among whom is Eoeenkranz in " Her Gedanke" Vol. V., B. 1, and in his Wissenschaft iter hyifchc* Idee. SeealsoanarticleofEmileSaissetintheItecuedtsDeuxMonde.*,15December. 1860. AmongotherHegeliansinItalymaybementioned:BertrandoSpaveuta.who. in his Filosofia di Gioberti, 1863. aimed to show the connection of the doctrines of this philosopherwiththeideasofHegeL He isalsotheauthorofIntroduzionealleLfzioni di Filosofia. 1802, Principiidi Filosofia, 1867 ; Sapgidi Critieafilosofica, politka e religiata, 1807;FUosofiadiKantesuarelationecollaFilosofiaItaiiana.18<J0. TheMarchioness Marianne Florenzi-Waddington was at first a disciple of Schelling, whose dialogue Of BrunoandLecturesonthePhilosophyofReligionshetranslatedintoItalian. Inher laterworks, however, she adopted the fundamental ideas and the terminology of HegeL ShewroteFilosofemidiCosmnlogiaediOntohgia,1863;SagaidiPtieolngiaediLogica, 1864 ; Saggio sulla Natura. 1806 ; Saggio sulla Filosofia dcUo Spirito, 1867 ; D H T intmor- taW.ildelVanimavmana,1868;liiflcssionimlSodalitmoeComunismo.1850. Herebe longs also Fr. Fiorentino, the author of Pietro Pomponacci— Ttlesio, and Stvdj Stnriei sullaScuoladiBolognaep"PadomalSecolo16°. HealsowroteonPositicismand Plutonium in Italy, 1867 (Rivista di Bologna.) Rafaelle Miriano wrote La Philom- phie Contemporaine en Italic, 1808 ; Lasalle e il sua Ernclito, t80o ; II IlisnrgimcnU Italiano secondo i pHndpii deUa FUosofia deUa Storia di Hegel, 1866 ; 11 Problema    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 611 RdigiosoinItalia,1872. Amongthosewhohavedevotedthemselvestotheapplication oftheHegeliandoctrinetothespecialbranchesofsciencemaybementionedC.DeMeis, naturalist and physiologist ; De-Sanctis, Mareelli, Delzio, Salvetti, Stanislao Gatti, M. Vitto, Camerim, and Trani, who applied it particularly to literary and historical criti cism, and to political, juridical and aathetical sciences. 6. Scholasticism.— The philosophical development of Italian philo s o p h y i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y is d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y its n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r , and the decided impulse it has given to the reconstruction of Italy, on thebasisofindependenceandliberty. Anexceptiontothisgeneral tendency is to be found in the writers who, laboring in the interests of t h e C h u r c h , h a v e s t r i v e n t o r e - e s t a b l i s h S c h o l a s t i c i s m , a n d w i t h it s a c e r dotaldominationovernationalthought. GiovachinoVentura(1792- 1SG1)istheprincipalrepresentativeofthisSchool. Hewasbomin Palermo,andearlybecameamemberof theOrderoftheTheatins. He was soon elected Superior-General of the Order, and held a high posi tion in the government of the Church. He was one of the most prominentsupportersofthereformsinauguratedbyPiusIX. Inhis eulogy on O'Connell, in his funeral oration on the victims of the re volution of Vienna in 1848, and in his sermons delivered in the Chapel of the Tuileries, in Paris, 1857-58, he continued to show himself a warmchampionofpopularrights. Inhisphilosophicalworks,how- over, he constantly maintained the fundamental idea of Scholasticism, placing the authorityof the Church above reason and human conscience, indeedaboveallsovereignty. Holdingthatphilosophywasbuta deduction from revelation, he asserted that the ultimate criterion of truthlayinthatauthority. Itistrue,hesays,thatideasoriginatein sensations, and in the subsequent images which are left by them in the mind ; but ideas have no value if not incorporated in language, which isitselfderivedfromrevelation. Philosophyreacheditsculminating point in St. Thomas Aquinas, and nothing is left to philosophers but tostudy,andtoexpoundthedoctrinesofthatwriter. Venturaisthe authorofthefollowingworks: De Mctlwdo Philosophandi,1828; D e la Vraie et de la Fausse Philosophie, 1852 ; L a Tradition et Us Semipelagiens de la Philosophie, 1854; La Raison Philosophique et Catholique, 1854. La Phil/jxophie Chretienne, 1861. Of. Le Pere VenturaetlaPhilosophie,parClis.deRemusatinLaRevuedesDeux Mondes,Fevrier,1853;also,EtudesMoralesetLitteraircsparA.de Broglie,1853. SeealsoonVentura,Drownson'sQuarterlyReview, Oct. 1855 ; and Annates de Philosophie Chretienne, Paris, Nov. 1861.    512 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. To the same School belongs M. Liberatore, a Jesn.it, the author of Trwtitutlines Phllosophiaoe, 1S31; Sitjjio aulta Conoscenza Intellet- tuale,1855;EthicaetJusNatural,1S5S. CompendiumLogicaletJfe- taphy»ivcB,18(58. LiberatorerejectsthevisionofGod,aswellasthe doctrine of pure tradition, as the principle of knowledge, and holds that human reason, aided by the senses and the power of abstraction, can originate ideas, and attain truth and certainty in the order of nature. But above nature and man there is the authority of the Church, the only infallible guide in philosophy as well as in theology. To the sameSchoolmaybereferredSanseverino,authorofPhilosophiaChris tianacumantl'juaetnovacomparata,1862;C.deCrescenziowhowrote Seuole di Filosofia, 1866 ; F. Capozza, author of Sulla Etlosofia dei Padri eDottori della Chiesa e in ixpecialitd di San Tommaso in op- posizione alia Eilosofia moderna, 1868 ; also P. Tapparelli d' Azeglio, a Jesuit, brother of the statesman of the same name, the author of Etame Crltlco dei Ooverni Jiapprefsentativi delle Sorieta Modern*, 1854, and Soggio teorico delDiritto Naturalefondato suW esperienza, 1855. La ClviltdCattolica,amonthlyReview,literary,political,andphi losophical, published in Rome, is the principal organ of this sect. It was established in 1850, and since its origin it has been chiefly edited by writers belonging to the Order of the Jesuits, such as Lil>era- tore,Perrone,Azeglio,Bresciani,andCurci. Thefiuidamentalideaof this Periodical is the insufficiency of human reason in all questions which refertoreligion,philosophy,morality,jurisprudence,and politics. European civilization is the result of Catholicism, and it is onlv in Catholicism that man and society can find a basis for their develop ment. Protestantism, liberty of conscience and thought are only sources of infidelity and revolution, and it is only by subjecting itself to the authority of the Church, that the human mind can re-establish its natural relations with God and man. The revolution which has made Italy one, having been carried out against the interests of the Church,isanti-Catholicandanti-Christian. Thesedoctrineshavere ceivedthesanctionofPiusIX.,whoinhisSyllabus,1864,condemned as monstrous errors the following propositions :— " Moral science and philosophy are independent of the authority of the Church ;" "Phi losophy may be treated without regard to revelation ;" " The princi ples and the method of the Scholastics are not in accordance with the need, and the progress of science;" "Every one may embrace that religion,whichheinhisconsciencemaythinktrue;""Protestantism    ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. 513 is a form of Christianity, in which m a n m a y please God, equally as well as if he were in the Catholic Church;" " Common schools ought to be exempted from the authority of the Church." These and other prop*iti<ms, proclaimed as religious errors, received formal condem nation from the Church in the Council of the Vatican, 1S70, through the dogmatic definition of papal infallibility, the logical consequence of genuine Catholicism and the highest synthesis of Scholasticism. 7. POSITIVISM, or rationalistic naturalism, as implying the negation ofallmetaphysicalscience,isrepresentedbyGiuseppeFerrari. A Lombard bv birth, and a disciple of Romagnosi, he early visited Paris, where he became connected with the University of France, as associate doctor, lieafterwardsheldaprofessorshipintheUniversityofStras bourg, which he was obliged to resign on account of his radical opin ions. In1859hereturnedtoItaly,enteredParliament,andwasap pointed professor of philosophy successively in Turin, Milan, and Florence. Admitting as insoluble the antinomies of reason in the sense of Kant, Ferrari holds that experience is the only foundation of truth. Therearetwospeciesofcontradictionintowhichthemind mayfall,thepositiveandthecritical. Theformerarisefromfaults of reasoning, and may disappear through a verification of the intellec tualprocess. Thelatteraretheresultsofafatallawofthemind,and cannotheavoided. Kantreducedthesecontradictionstotheideashav ing reference to God, the world, and man ; but in fact they are number less ; thev are in us and out of us ; they manifest themselves in our ideas andactions,inlx>ththetheoreticalandthepracticalorder. Theiruni versalityisthelawofmindandnature. Hegelwithaneffortofgenius attempted to reduce them to a rational unity ; but he succeeded only in giving us a philosophy of contradictions. His failure shows the irnjKjssibiliry of metaphysical science, and the futility of the labors of metaphysicianstofindarelationbetweenNatureandLogic. Between thetwothereisnorelation;theformerisfoundedonthelawofcon trast and change, the latter on identity ; hence there is an essential opjKwition between them, which renders it impossible to represent mility in accordance with mental ideality. Indeed the mind itself IB subject to the law of opposition, BO that in reality an absolute identity even in the logical order is an impossibility. The effort therefore to reduce nature and mind to scientific unity must ine vitably result in transforming the critical antimonies into positive ones, and thus in making error a necessity. The mind is neither 33    514 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. superior nor equal to nature ; it is its child ; and it is only in sub mission to nature that it can co-ordinate its thoughts, determine its knowledge,andfindabasisforspeculation. Phenomenalism,there fore, with all the oppositions which are revealed in the ever-chang ing movement of nature, is the object as well as the limit of our intelligence. The ideal relations, such as the relations of quality and substance, of effect and cause, of finite and infinite, and all others which relate to the supreme laws of nature and thought, are so many oppositions which predominate in the universe, and in all our analyses ; they are the inexplicable conditionsof our knowledge, and the insuper ablelimitsofallscience. An impenetrable mysteryenvelopesthem, andthemindcanneitherexplainnor.reconcilethem. Henceitfol lows that no absolute truth exists in the human mind, and that philo sophy is only so far true as it does not overstep the limits of a pheno menal experience, the cause of which is an everlasting movement, and its law a perpetual opposition. Led by these ideas, Ferrari attempts a philosophical reconstruction of the political development of nations, founded exclusively on expe rienceandinduction. Heestablishesthereforeageneralanduniform type of this development, and divides itinto four periods, each com prisingaboutthirtyyears. Thefirstperiodisanepochofprepara tion, in which new ideas are manifested, and the genus of future eventsandlawsdepositedinthesoulofthepeople. Thisisfollowed by the period of explosion, in which those germs, having reached their maturity, burst forth in explicit ideas, and are transformed into politi calaction. A phasisofreaction,nextappears,bywhichatemjxjrary return ismade to the ancient regime, and the new form of civilization andthedoctrinesofrevolutionaremomentarilysuppressed. Inthis phase the body politic finds itself in a kind of oscillation between the old and the new, seeking its equilibrium. Finally, the last period completes the movement through a solution, and it ends with ingraft ing the new ideas in the minds of the people, and in the character of the government. Thus in France, Louis X1Y. represents the first period, the revolution the second, the last years of Xapoleon and the kingdoms of Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe the third, •while the fourth begins in the revolution of 1848, is interrupted by thesecondempire,andrecommenceswithitsfall. Ferrariisthe authorofLaMentediG.B.Viw,1^37;LaMentediG.D.Romag- nosi,1835;De VErreur; VicoeFItalic,1839;Idees&urlaPoiii     ITALIAN PlttLOSOPHY. 51o de Platon et d'Aristote ; Essai stir h Principe et lea Limites de la Pkilosopliiede Vllistoire; Histoire de hi RaisondeVEtat; His toire des Revolutions oVItalie, 1858 ; Vorso di Lezioni swjli Scrittori Politici Italiani, 1862-63 ;Filosofia della Rivoluzione, 1851. Ausonio Franchi (a nom de plume assumed by F. Bonavino) is anotherrepresentativeofthisSchool. Inhisyouthhebecameapriest, but. soon renounced this position, and avowed himself a rationalist and anaturalist. lieisnowprofessorofthephilosophyofhistoryinthe UniversityofPavia. Inhiswork,LaFilosofiadell-eSeuoleLtaliane, 1852, he attempts a criticism of the philosophies of Rosmini, Gioberti, and Mamiani, and rejects them all as exponents of old Scholasticism under new forms. Admitting the negative part of the doctrine of Kant, he derives his positive ideas from the French philosophers of the 18th century. Nature and its phenomena are the limits of our knowledge,andtimeandspaceitsexclusiveconditions. Thereisno other reality, which the mind can reach ; there is no substance, no truth in itself. The infinite is only the indefinite, and even this is notreal,butideal. InhisbookDelSentimento,1854,Franchirests his psychology on sensation, and makes this the origin of all mental faculties. Applying these ideas to religion in his La Religione del Secolo 19°, 1853, and in his II Razionalismo del Popolo, 1856, he borrows from Feuerbach, from Comte and other positivists, the idea of humanity as the basis and the object of a genuine rationalistic religion. InhisReview,LaRaaione,whichheestablishedin1854, he discussed the most important questions of philosophy, religion, and politics, showing a decided tendency towards Socialism, yet maintain ing a proper regard for the rights of property and the institution of thefamily. HeisalsotheauthorofLezionisulhiStoriadeltaFilo sofia Moderna, 1863, and of the work Sulla Teorica del Giudizio, 1871. JacquesMoleschott,professorintheUniversityofTurin,in his Iji Circulation de la Vie, 1866, and other numerous works on physiology, Salvator Tommasi, professor in the University of Naples, author of the JVaturalismo Moderno, 1S66, and other eminent phys iologists and scientists, contend that all knowledge is essentially relative and finite, and that therefore all questions relating to the A b solute and the Infinite are insoluble; hence they assert that the pro vince of philosophy must be confined within the limits of natural science.    518 ITALIAN PHILOSOPHY. To this School, although from an entirely different point of view, maybereferredPasqualeVillari,theauthorofLaStoriadiSavonaro la, 1858, w h o in his Saggi di Storia, Critica, e Politica, 1868, insists on the exclusive application of the historical method to philosophical sciences, a method, the adoption of which is urged by Raffaele Lain- bruschini,theauthorofDeW Educazioneedell'Istruzione,1849,La Guida, deW Educatore, and other valuable works on education ; cf. his LaFilosofiaPositivaesaminatasecondoiPrincipiidellaPedagogia, in the Gioventù of Florence, June, lS68,a weekly paper devoted to the progressofeducation. Thefollowingwriters,underdifferentaspects, illustrate the contemporary history of Positive Philosophy in Italy:— Bissolati, Introduzione alle Istituzioni Pirroniane, 1870; A. Secchi, U n i t à delle F o r z e Fisiche, 1 S 6 4 ;Pozzolini, I n d u z i o n e delle F o r z e FisicJie, 1868; Barbera,La Legge universale di rotazione,and Newton e la Filosofianaturale,1870;A.Martinozzoli,La TeoriadettaFilosofia, 1870 ; B. Bianco, La Rivoluzione velia Filosofia, ossia il Vero ed il LecitoapplicatialMaterialismo,1870;T.Dandolo,StoriadelPensiero nei-tempi moderni, 1871 ; G. Coco-Zanghi, Antropologia, V U o m o e la Scimmia,1871;A.Angiulli,LaFilosofiaelaRicercaPositiva,1869; P. Siciliani, Sul Rinnovamento della Filosofia Positiva in Italia, 1871 ; G. Barzellotti, La Morale nella Filosofia Positiva, 1872. R, Lanciano.SaggiodiScienzaPrima,1871;E Universo,T'AstroeTIn dividuo,1872;M.Panizza,IlPositivismoFilosofico,eilPositivismo Scientifico, Lettere ad Ermanno L. F. LTclmholtz, 1871.