Gricean maxims, perjury and mendancity in courtroom cross-examianation

by JLS
for the GC

THESE ARE SOME GRAND words so they merit a blog post. When I was studying 'language' by reading Sir John Lyons's "Introduction of Linguistics", I reached p. 5 or so -- "We shall start to define a language. Lying. Only a human can lie. By means of a language. We shall take prevarication as the rule of thumb or definitional criterion. The bees cannot lie as they dance." (I'm relying on memory, so take the quotes as metaphorical). (T. Wharton has analysed the case).

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Cfr. Kramer in comment on "Controversial Grice":

"Perjury on cross-examination should always
involve a surprise to the examining lawyer,
unless, of course, the lawyer knows that
the witness will lie and he either wants to lie
to stand or wants to use it to show the
witnes's mendacity later."

-- for indeed, to lie is a bad thing. Grice often wondered. "Why?". Rather, why is it a central question in the foundation of the cooperative principle that the maxims aimed at the most effective exchange of psychological ascriptions related to the factual component of the scenarios that caused those ascriptions be as he says."

He answers, again from memory: Well, for one, we were taught not to lie by our parents. And in any case, it is always easier to tell the truth than to invent extravagant lies.

("It is much easier ... to tell the truth than to invent lies", WoW: 29).

I was so fascinated by that reply by Grice that when I was invited to give a lecture -- later published in the proceedings of the thing -- and which I entitled, typically, in a pretentious way, as involving some sort of 'critique of (conversational) reason' -- I distinguished with Grice three steps or 'levels' involved:

a. 'empiricist', "dull" level --- "easier to tell the truth than lie", etc. But more about this -- a matter of habit. Etc. I even went on to quote from Loar who had suggested that things like the maxims be seen (in his brilliant, but seldom quoted, "Mind and Meaning" -- among the best Gricean analyses --) as "empirical generalisations over functional states"! -- and he meant it, and I did, when I read him, seriously.

b. rational (means-end)

c. rational (Kantian) -- things have to be 'universalizable' along the three dimension that Grice discusses in detail in "Method in philosophical psychology" (Grice 1991).

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"Perjury on cross-examination should always
involve a surprise to the examining lawyer,
unless, of course, the lawyer knows that
the witness will lie and he either wants to lie
to stand or wants to use it to show the
witnes's mendacity later."

---

The case involves a slight reference, by me, that is, to what is referred, vaguely as a 'white lie'. Surely Grice discussed this in his Kant lectures, and would pour scorn on the idea by Kant on the universal prohibition of 'mendacity', so one may need to be careful.

Surely we are speaking of 'legitimate' courtroom examinations -- not one held in other circumstances.

"Perjury on cross-examination should always
involve a surprise to the examining lawyer,
unless, of course, the lawyer knows that
the witness will lie and he either wants to lie
to stand or wants to use it to show the
witnes's mendacity later."

From an online etymological resource:

mendacious. 1610s, from Middle French, "mendacieux," from Latin "mendacium" "a lie," from "mendax" (genitive, "mendacis") "lying, deceitful," related to "menda", "fault, defect, carelessness in writing" (cf. amend, mendicant), from Proto-Indo-European base *mend- "physical defect, fault." The sense evolution of "mendax" influenced by "mentiri" "to speak falsely, lie, deceive.""

As a curiosity, note 'mentiri', which apparently influenced the change of usages of 'mendax' from something not so bad to something very bad. 'mentiri' seems to be cognate with English 'mean', which is the Gricean word par excellence. Oddly, in the Romance languages, the same root that gives such a transparent thing in Grice gives the opposite.

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From the online Short & Lewis:

menda, -ae, f. v. mendum,

"I. a fault, defect, blemish of the body (poet. and postAug.)."

"I. Lit.: “in toto nusquam corpore menda fuit,” Ov. Am. 1, 5, 18: “nocte latent mendae,” id. A. A. 1, 249.—"

"II. Transf., a mistake, error, blunder, in writing, in books,
a slip of the pen, Suet. Aug. 87: “mendae istins indoles,” Gell. 20, 6, 14; 1, 7, 3."

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cfr. mendum (I prefer a Latin neuter -- more severe).

"mendum , i, n. Sanscr. manāk, a little; mindā, a defect; cf.: mancus, mendicus,"

I. a fault, error, blunder in writing (class.).

I. Lit.: “quod mendum ista litura correxit?” Cic. Verr. 2, 2, 42, § 104: “librariorum,” id. Att. 13, 23, 2.—

II. Trop.: Idus Martiae magnum mendum continent,

mistake, error, Cic Att. 14, 22, 2.—
B. A blemish, defect, in the face, etc.: “rara tamen mendo facies caret,” Ov. A. A. 3, 261.

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Finally, 'mendax':

mendax , dācis, adj. mentior,

I. given to lying, mendacious; subst., a liar.

I. Lit.: “mendacem esse adversus aliquem,” Plaut. Poen. 1, 2, 188: “cum mendaci homini, ne verum quidem dicenti, credere soleamus,” Cic. Div. 2, 71, 146: “Carthaginienses fraudulenti et mendaces,” id. Agr. 2, 35, 95: “aretalogus,” Juv. 15, 16.—As subst.: mendax , dācis, m., a liar.—Prov.: “mendacem memorem esse oportet,” a liar should have a good memory, Quint. 4, 2, 91.— Comp.: “Parthis mendacior,” Hor. Ep 2, 1, 112.—Sup.: “mendacissimus,” the greatest liar, Plaut. Rud. 3, 4, 48.—With gen.: “si hujus rei me mendacem esse inveneris,” Plaut. As. 5, 2, 4.—With dat.: “saepe fui mendax pro te mihi,” Ov. H. 2, 11.—With in and acc.: “in parentem,” Hor. C. 3, 11, 35; for which adversum, Plaut. Poen. 1, 2, 188.— With in and abl.: “in tenui farragine,” Pers. 5, 77.—

II. Transf., of inanim, and abstr. things, lying, false, deceptive; feigned, fictitious, counterfeit, not real, etc. (mostly poet.): “mendacia visa,” Cic. Div. 2, 62, 127: “speculum,” Ov. Tr. 3, 7, 38: “fundus,” that does not yield the expected fruits, Hor. C. 3, 1, 30: “damnum,” Ov. A. A. 1, 431: “infamia,” Hor. Ep. 1, 16, 39: “os,” Tib. 3, 6, 35: “pennae,” Ov. M. 10, 159: “quidquid Graecia mendax audet in historia,” Juv. 10, 174.—Hence, adv.: mendācĭter , falsely, mendaciously (post-class.): “praedicare,” Sol. 1, 87.— Sup.: “mendacissime dicere,” Aug. Mor. Eccl. 1, 17.

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(The glosses involving 'falsity' are worth examining, since surely mendacity applies to "intention" to deceive rather than naive candid utterance of a falsehood -- unintentional even).

I end this post with Short/Lewis for 'mentior' which is NOT cognate, according to the online etym. -- and as Short/Lewis acknoweldge -- but rather with 'mens' and thus 'mean' -- but which they still quote in the 'mendax' entry:

mentĭor , ītus, 4 (
I. fut. mentibitur, for mentietur, Plaut. Mil. 1, 1, 35; 2, 2, 99; v. Neue, Formenl. 2, p. 448), v. dep. n. and a. [prob. from root men-, whence mens, memini, q. v. Original meaning, to invent; hence],

I. Neutr., to lie, cheat, deceive, etc.: “mentiri palam,” Plaut. Truc. 1, 2, 89: “mentire,” id. Poen. 3, 5, 18: “adversus aliquem,” id. Aul. 4, 7, 9: “apud aliquem,” id. Poen. 1, 1, 24: “sibi,” id. Am. 1, 2, 6: “mihi,” id. Capt. 3, 5, 46; Ter. Eun. 4, 4, 35: “aperte,” Cic. Ac. 2, 6, 18: “in re aliquā,” id. Att. 12, 21, 4: “de re aliquā,” id. N. D. 3, 6, 14: “adeo veritatis diligens, ut ne joco quidem mentiretur,” Nep. Epam. 3, 1.—With acc. and inf., to pretend, to declare falsely: “certam me sum mentitus habere Horam, quae, etc.,” Ov. Tr. 1, 3, 53; Plin. 12, 15, 34, § 67: mentior nisi or si mentior, a form of asseveration, I am a liar, if, etc.: “mentior, nisi et quae alunt illud, corpora sunt,” Sen. Ep. 106, 5: “si mentiar, inquit, Ultima, quā fallam, sit Venus illa mihi,” Ov. F. 4, 227.—Of things, to deceive, impose upon: frons, oculi, vultus persaepe mentiuntur, oratio vero saepissime, Cic. Q. Fr. 1, 1, 6: “in quibus nihil umquam ... vetustas mentita sit,” id. N. D. 2, 5, 15.—

B. To deceive one's self, mistake: “mentire, gnate,” Plaut. Trin. 2, 2, 83 Brix ad loc.—

II. Act., to lie or speak falsely about, to assert falsely, make a false promise about; to feign, counterfeit, imitate a shape, nature, etc.: “cujus consilio tantam rem mentitus esset,” had devised such a falsehood, Sall. C. 48: “originem alicujus,” Just. 35, 2, 4: “auspicium,” Liv. 10, 40: “titulum Lyciscae,” to assume falsely, Juv. 6, 123: “noctem,” to promise falsely, Prop. 3, 9, 1: “cur sese daemonia mentiuntur,” Tert. Apol. 23; also, to invent, feign, of a poetical fiction: “ita mentitur (sc. Homerus),” Hor. A. P. 151; cf.: “poëtae Orionem mentiuntur in pelago incidentem,” Lact. 4, 15, 21.—Pass.: “si a debitore, praelato die, pignoris obligatio mentiatur,” Dig. 48, 10, 28.—

B. Trop., of inanim. subjects: semel fac illud, Mentitur tua quod subinde tussis, do what your cough keeps falsely promising, i. e. die, Mart. 5, 39, 6: “mentiris juvenem tinctis capillis,” id. 3, 43, 1: “color, qui chrysocollam mentitur,” Plin. 35, 6, 29, § 48: “nec varios discet mentiri lana colores,” Verg. E. 4, 42: sexum viris denegatum muliebri motu, Col. praef. 1.—Hence, *
1. mentĭens , entis, m. subst., a fallacy, sophism: quomodo mentientem, quem ψευδόμενον vocant, dissolvas, Cic. Div. 2, 4, 11. —
2. mentītus , a, um, Part., in pass. signif., imitated, counterfeit, feigned (poet.): “mentita tela,” Verg. A. 2, 422: “figurae,” Ov. M. 5, 326: “fama,” id. ib. 10, 28: “nomen,” id. ib. 10, 439; id. H. 11, 73; Sen. Contr. 5, 5, 3; Luc. 2, 512; Val. Fl. 6, 698; 7, 155; Sil. 15, 796; Stat. S. 4, 6, 21; id. Th. 1, 256; 7, 303; 10, 875; Poët. ap. Suet. Oth. 3; Prop. 4 (5), 7, 58: “mentiti fictique terrores,” Plin. Ep. 6, 20, 15; id. Pan. 81, 3: “divinitas,” Lact. 2, 16, 2; Quint. 12, 10, 76.